gh4-ch0c0l4te

Setting Jaringan di Fedora

2011-02-13T03:26:00.000-08:00

Membangun DNS Server
1. Instal paket bind dan bind - chroot (terhubung internet)
#yum install bind bind-chroot
   (tidak terhubung internet)
   #rpm -ivh bind-9.7.0-9.P1.fc13.i686.rpm bind-chroot-9.7.0-9.P1.fc13.i686.rpm
2. #cd /etc/
3. #vim named.conf
   Isi file konfigurasi diatas dengan baris-baris berikut :
   #Forward Zone for jnovianti.org domain
   zone "jnovianti.org" IN {
            type master;
            file "jnovianti.org.zone";
   };
   #Reverse Zone for jnovianti.org domain
   zone "1.168.192.in-addr.arpa" IN {
            type master;
            file "192.168.1.zone";
};
acl jnovianti-org { 192.168.1.0/24; 127.0/8; };
options {
          directory "/var/named";
          allow-query { all };
                   forwarders { 192.168.1.253; 192.168.1.1; }; #
primary/secondary
        forward only ;# Rely completely on ISP for cache misses
};
4. #cd /var/named/
5. #vim jnovianti.org.zone
    Isi file konfigurasi di atas dengan baris-baris berikut :
    $TTL 1D
    jnovianti.org.               IN SOA            andi.jnovianti.org
    nur.jnovianti.org (
                                      200612060             ; serial
2H    ; refresh slaves
5M ; retry
1W     ; expire
                                      1M                                   ; Negative TTL
                            )
@                                IN NS andi.jnovianti.org.
andi.jnovianti.org.          IN A                    192.168.1.253         ; RHEL server
nur.jnovianti.org.           IN A 192.168.1.254     ; router
mystermachine    IN A 192.168.1.252     ; mail server
www                            IN CNAME        andi.jnovianti.org.      ; WWW server
ftp                                IN CNAME        andi.jnovianti.org.      ; FTP server
virtual                           IN CNAME        andi                          ; virtual WWW
tests
mail                             IN CNAME         mystermachine           ; sendmail host
@                                IN MX   10          mail.jnovianti.org.
6. Buat file konfigurasi zone kedua, 192.168.1.zone:
#vim 192.168.1.zone
Isi file dengan baris-baris berikut :
$TTL 1D
@             IN              SOA             andi.jnovianti.org    nur.jnovianti.org.      (
200612060                 ; serial
2H                              ; refresh slaves
5M                             ; retry
1W                            ; expire
1M                             ; Negative TTL
)

                  IN              NS           andi.jnovianti.org.
252           IN            PTR            mystermachine.jnovianti.org.
253           IN            PTR           andi.jnovianti.org.
254           IN            PTR           nur.jnovianti.org.
8. #service named start
9. #chkconfig named on
10. Jangan Lupa u/ membuka port koneksi dns di aplikasi firewall fedora
      System /Administration /Firewall
      lalu masukkan password user root untuk mengaksesnya
     Cheklist pilihan service : DNS, lalu tekan tombol Apply, dan tekan Yes
     Selanjutnya tekan Reload, lalu tutup aplikasi dengan menekan tombol close.
11. Uji Layanan DNS dengan mengubah sisi file /etc/resolve.conf dengan IP - Address yang sudah dibuat (192.168.1.253)
      #vim /etc/resolve.conf
      Isi dengan baris berikut :
      nameserver 192.168.1.253
12. Untuk mengujinya jalankan command baik di komputer server atau client
      $dig www.jnovianti.org
      Atau dengan command host terhadap nama domain dan IP Addressnya :
     $host www.jnovianti.org
   $192.168.1.253

Untuk setting Proxy server, sama seperti catatan yang sudah diberikan
good luck :-)

Tugas Pengantar Kecerdasan Buatan 2

2010-03-23T07:10:00.000-07:00

Tugas Pengantar Kecerdasan Buatan

2010-03-14T23:45:00.001-07:00

A. Ubahlah pernyataan berikut dalam bentuk representasi logika proposisi dan predikat
1. Karjo adalah seorang laki-laki
2. Karjo adalah orang Jawa
3. Karjo lahir pada tahun 1840
4. Setiap laki-laki pasti akan mati
5. Semua orang Jawa mati pada saat Krakatau meletus tahun 1883
6. Setiap orang pasti mati setelah hidup lebih dari 150 tahun
7. Sekarang tahun 2010
8. Mati berarti tidak hidup
9. Jika seseorang mati, maka beberapa waktu kemudian dia pasti dianggap mati
B. Apakah Karjo masih hidup sekarang dengan metode Backward ?

Jawaban:
A.
1. Laki-laki(Karjo)
2. Jawa(Karjo)
3. Lahir(Karjo,1840)
4. ∀x : laki-laki(x) → pastimati(x)
5. Meletus(Krakatau, 1883) ∧ ∀x : [Jawa(x) → mati(x, 1883)
6. ∀x : ∀thn1 : ∀thn2 : pastimati(x) ∧ lahir(x, thn1) ∧ lahir(x, thn2) ∧ lebihdari(thn2 – thn1, 150) → mati(x, thn2)
7. Sekarang ≡ 2010
8. ∀x : ∀y : [mati(x,y) → ¬hidup(x,y) ] ∧ [¬hidup(x,y) → mati(x,y)]
9. ∀x : ∀thn1 : ∀thn2 : mati(x, thn1) ∧ lebihdari(thn2 – thn1) → mati(x, thn2)

B.
Dari pernyataan diatas akan dibuktikan Karjo tidak hidup sekarang dengan penalaran backward : ¬hidup (karjo, sekarang)

¬hidup (karjo, sekarang)
↑ (8, subtitusi)
Mati(karjo, sekarang)
↑ (9, subtitusi)
Mati(karjo, thn1) ∧ lebihdari(sekarang, thn1)
↑ (5, subtitusi)
Jawa(Karjo) ∧ lebihdari(sekarang, 1883)
↑ (2)
Lebihdari(sekarang, 1883)
↑ (7, subtitusi)
Lebihdari(2010, 1883)
↑ (menghitung lebihdari)
Nil

Practice Test in class , at 18th February 2010

2010-03-03T08:57:00.000-08:00

The Armory Show, held in New York in 1913, was a important exhibition of modern European art.
Ripe fruit is often stored in a place who contains much carbon dioxide so that the fruit will not decay too rapidly.
In 1852 Massachusetts passed a law requiring all children from four to eighteen years of old to attend school.
The main purpose of classifying animals is to show the most probable evolutionary relationship of the different species to each another.
Matthew C Perry, a United States naval commander, gained fame not in war and through diplomacy.
One of the most impressive collections of nineteenth-century European paintings in the United States can be found to the Philadelphia Museum of Art.
Three of every four migrating water birds in North America visits the Gulf of Mexico's winter wetlands.
Charleston, West Virginia, was named for Charles Clendenin, who son George acquired land at the junction of the Elk and Kanawha rivers in 1787.
Financier Andrew Mellon donated most of his magnificent art collection to the National Galerry of Art, where it is now locating.
Soil temperatures in Death Valley, California, near the Nevada border, have been known to reach 90 of degrees Celcius.
When the Sun, Moon, and Earth are alignment and the Moon crosses the Earth's orbital plane, a solar eclipse occurs.
Mary Cassatt's paintings of mothers and children are known for its fine linear rhythm, simple modelings, and harmonies of clear color.
Plants synthesize carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide with the aid of energy is derived from sunlight.
The best American popular music balances a powerful of emotions of youth with tenderness, grace, and wit.
In the nineteenth century, women used quilts to inscribe their responses to social, economics, and politics issues.
Fossils in 500-million-year-old rocks demonstrate that life forms in the cambrian period were mostly marine animals capability of secreting calcium to from shells.
Rainbows in the shape of complete circles are sometimes seen from airplanes because they are not cutting off by the horizon.
Hot at the equator causes the air to expand, rise, and flow toward the poles.
Although research has been on going since 1930, the existence of ESP-perception and communication without the use of sight, hear, taste, touch, or smell - is still disputed.
As many as 50 percent of the income from motion pictures produced in the United States comes from marketing the films abroad.
Sleep is controlled by the brain and associated by characteristic breathing rhythms.
The walls around the city of Quebec, which was originally a fort millitary, still stand, making Quebec the only walled city in North America.
The manufacture of authomobile was extremely expensive until assembly-line techniques made them cheaper to produce.
The ballad is characterized by informal diction, by a narrative largely dependent on action and dialogue, by thematic intense, and by stress on repetition.
Eleanor Roosevelt set the standard against which the wives of all United States Presidents since have evaluated.

Caution :
the word that bold is the answer of the sentence !!!!

Pengantar Komputasi Modern

2010-03-02T19:49:00.000-08:00

Ilmu komputasi adalah bidang ilmu yang mempunyai perhatian pada penyusunan model matematikateknik penyelesaian numerik serta penggunaan komputer untuk menganalisis dan memecahkan masalah-masalah ilmu (sains). Dalam penggunaan praktis, biasanya berupa penerapan simulasi komputer atau berbagai bentuk komputasi lainnya untuk menyelesaikan masalah-masalah dalam berbagai bidang keilmuan, tetapi dalam perkembangannya digunakan juga untuk menemukan prinsip-prinsip baru yang mendasar dalam ilmu. dan (http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputasi)

Yang terkait dengan komputasi modern adalah :

Akurasi : yang berhubungan dengan bit dan floating point
Kecepatan : dalam satuan hertz (processor tunggal, pipeline, parallel processing)
Problem volume besar : down sizing, parallel
Modelling : NN, GA
Kompleksitas : menggunakan teori big O

Model Komputasi

Mesin Mealy

Dalam teori komputasi sebagai konsep dasar sebuah komputer, mesin Mealy adalah otomasi fasa berhingga (finite state automaton atau finite state tranducer) yang menghasilkan keluaran berdasarkan fasa saat itu dan bagian masukan/input. Dalam hal ini, diagram fasa (state diagram) dari mesin Mealy memiliki sinyal masukan dan sinyal keluaran untuk tiap transisi. Prinsip ini berbeda dengan mesin Moore yang hanya menghasilkan keluaran/output pada tiap fasa.

Nama Mealy diambil dari “G. H. Mealy” seorang perintis mesin-fasa (state-machine) yang menulis karangan “A Method for Synthesizing Sequential Circuits” pada tahun 1955. (http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesin_Mealy), 280210

( Diagram fasa dari mesin Mealy sederhana )

Mesin Moore

Dalam teori komputasi sebagai prinsip dasar komputer, mesin Moore adalah otomasi fasa berhingga (finite state automaton) di mana keluarannya ditentukan hanya oleh fasa saat itu (dan tidak terpengaruh oleh bagian masukan/input). Diagram fasa (state diagram) dari mesin Moore memiliki sinyal keluaran untuk masing-masing fasa. Hal ini berbeda dengan mesin Mealy yang mempunyai keluaran untuk tiap transisi.
Nama Moore diambil dari “Edward F. Moore” seorang ilmuwan komputer dan perintis mesin-fasa (state-machine) yang menulis karangan “Gedanken-experiments on Sequential Machines”. (http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesin_Moore), 280210

soo, too, either, neither, nor

2010-01-10T19:42:00.000-08:00

Kita menggunakan :

too(juga) di akhir kalimat dan untuk kalimat positif

so (begitu juga) di awal kalimat dan untuk kalimat positif

Example :

Amin studies hard day and night and i do too.
His shop was burnt down, and so was his car that was parked nearby.

Kita menggunakan :

either (juga tidak) di akhir kalimat dan untuk kalimat negative
neither (juga tidak) di awal kalimat dan untuk kalimat negative
nor (juga tidak) di awal kalimat untuk kalimat negative

Example :

I don't like horror films and Sandra doesn't either.
I didn't come to the party last night because i was sick and neither did Rico.
I'm not ready and nor is Tuty.

Pronouns

2010-01-06T08:58:00.000-08:00

Pronouns

Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a pronoun instead of a noun. Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours, themselves, some, each... If we didn't have pronouns, we would have to repeat a lot of nouns. We would have to say things like:

Do you like the president? I don't like the president. The president is too pompous.

With pronouns, we can say:

Do you like the president? I don't like him. He is too pompous.

Personal Pronouns

We use personal pronouns in place of the person or people that we are talking about. My name is Josef but when I am talking about myself I almost always use "I" or "me", not "Josef". When I am talking direct to you, I almost always use "you", not your name. When I am talking about another person, say John, I may start with "John" but then use "he" or "him". And so on.
Here are the personal pronouns, followed by some example sentences:

number	person	gender	personal pronouns
number	person	gender	subject	object
singular	1st	male/female	I	me
	2nd	male/female	you	you
	3rd	male	he	him
		female	she	her
		neuter	it	it
plural	1st	male/female	we	us
	2nd	male/female	you	you
	3rd	male/female/neuter	they	them

Examples (in each case, the first example shows a subject pronoun, the second an object pronoun):

I like coffee.
John helped me.
Do you like coffee?
John loves you.
He runs fast.
Did Ram beat him?
She is clever.
Does Mary know her?
It doesn't work.
Can the engineer repair it?
We went home.
Anthony drove us.
Do you need a table for three?
Did John and Mary beat you at doubles?
They played doubles.
John and Mary beat them.

When we are talking about a single thing, we almost always use it. However, there are a few exceptions. We may sometimes refer to an animal as he/him or she/her, especially if the animal is domesticated or a pet. Ships (and some other vessels or vehicles) as well as some countries are often treated as female and referred to as she/her. Here are some examples:

This is our dog Rusty. He's an Alsation.
The Titanic was a great ship but she sank on her first voyage.
My first car was a Mini and I treated her like my wife.
Thailand has now opened her border with Cambodia.

For a single person, sometimes we don't know whether to use he or she. There are several solutions to this:

If a teacher needs help, he or she should see the principal.
If a teacher needs help, he should see the principal.
If a teacher needs help, they should see the principal.

We often use it to introduce a remark:

It is nice to have a holiday sometimes.
It is important to dress well.
It's difficult to find a job.
Is it normal to see them together?
It didn't take long to walk here.

We also often use it to talk about the weather, temperature, time and distance:

It's raining.
It will probably be hot tomorrow.
Is it nine o'clock yet?
It's 50 kilometres from here to Cambridge.

Demonstrative Pronouns

A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things:

near in distance or time (this, these)
far in distance or time (that, those)

	near	far
singular	this	that
plural	these	those

Here are some examples with demonstrative pronouns, followed by an illustration:

This tastes good.
Have you seen this?
These are bad times.
Do you like these?
That is beautiful.
Look at that!
Those were the days!
Can you see those?
This is heavier than that.
These are bigger than those.

Do not confuse demonstrative pronouns with demonstrative adjectives. They are identical, but a demonstrative pronoun stands alone, while a demonstrative adjective qualifies a noun.

That smells. (demonstrative pronoun)
That book is good. (demonstrative adjective + noun)

Normally we use demonstrative pronouns for things only. But we can use them for people when the person is identified. Look at these examples:

This is Josef speaking. Is that Mary?
That sounds like John.

Possessive Pronouns

We use possessive pronouns to refer to a specific person/people or thing/things (the "antecedent") belonging to a person/people (and sometimes belonging to an animal/animals or thing/things).
We use possessive pronouns depending on:

number: singular (eg: mine) or plural (eg: ours)
person: 1st person (eg: mine), 2nd person (eg: yours) or 3rd person (eg: his)
gender: male (his), female (hers)

Below are the possessive pronouns, followed by some example sentences. Notice that each possessive pronoun can:

be subject or object
refer to a singular or plural antecedent

number	person	gender (of "owner")	possessive pronouns
singular	1st	male/female	mine
	2nd	male/female	yours
	3rd	male	his
	3rd	female	hers
plural	1st	male/female	ours
	2nd	male/female	yours
	3rd	male/female/neuter	theirs

Look at these pictures. Mine is the big one. (subject = My picture)
I like your flowers. Do you like mine? (object = my flowers)
I looked everywhere for your key. I found John's key but I couldn't find yours. (object = your key)
My flowers are dying. Yours are lovely. (subject = Your flowers)
All the essays were good but his was the best. (subject = his essay)
John found his passport but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her passport)
John found his clothes but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her clothes)
Here is your car. Ours is over there, where we left it. (subject = Our car)
Your photos are good. Ours are terrible. (subject = Our photos)
Each couple's books are colour-coded. Yours are red. (subject = Your books)
I don't like this family's garden but I like yours. (subject = your garden)
These aren't John and Mary's children. Theirs have black hair. (subject = Their children)
John and Mary don't like your car. Do you like theirs? (object = their car)

Notice that the following (with apostrophe [']) do NOT exist: ~~her's, your's, their's~~

Notice that the interrogative pronoun whose can also be a possessive pronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun). Look at these examples:

There was $100 on the table and Tara wondered whose it was.
This car hasn't moved for two months. Whose is it?

Interrogative Pronouns

We use interrogative pronouns to ask questions. The interrogative pronoun represents the thing that we don't know (what we are asking the question about).
There are four main interrogative pronouns: who, whom, what, which
Notice that the possessive pronoun whose can also be an interrogative pronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun).

	subject	object
person	who	whom
thing	what
person/thing	which
person	whose		(possessive)

Notice that whom is the correct form when the pronoun is the object of the verb, as in "Whom did you see?" ("I saw John.") However, in normal, spoken English we rarely use whom. Most native speakers would say (or even write): "Who did you see?"

Look at these example questions. In the sample answers, the noun phrase that the interrogative pronoun represents is shown in bold.

question	answer
Who told you?	John told me.	subject
Whom did you tell?	I told Mary.	object
What's happened?	An accident's happened.	subject
What do you want?	I want coffee.	object
Which came first?	The Porsche 911 came first.	subject
Which will the doctor see first?	The doctor will see the patient in blue first.	object
There's one car missing. Whose hasn't arrived?	John's (car) hasn't arrived.	subject
We've found everyone's keys. Whose did you find?	I found John's (keys).	object

Note that we sometimes use the suffix "-ever" to make compounds from some of these pronouns (mainly whoever, whatever, whichever). When we add "-ever", we use it for emphasis, often to show confusion or surprise. Look at these examples:

Whoever would want to do such a nasty thing?
Whatever did he say to make her cry like that?
They're all fantastic! Whichever will you choose?

Reflexive Pronouns

We use a reflexive pronoun when we want to refer back to the subject of the sentence or clause. Reflexive pronouns end in "-self" (singular) or "-selves" (plural).
There are eight reflexive pronouns:

	reflexive pronoun
singular	myself yourself himself, herself, itself
plural	ourselves yourselves themselves

Look at these examples:

	reflexive pronouns
the underlined words are NOT the same person/thing	the underlined words are the SAME person/thing
John saw me.	I saw myself in the mirror.
Why does he blame you?	Why do you blame yourself?
David sent him a copy.	John sent himself a copy.
David sent her a copy.	Mary sent herself a copy.
My dog hurt the cat.	My dog hurt itself.
We blame you.	We blame ourselves.
Can you help my children?	Can you help yourselves?
They cannot look after the babies.	They cannot look after themselves.

Intensive pronouns

Notice that all the above reflexive pronouns can also act as intensive pronouns, but the function and usage are different. An intensive pronoun emphasizes its antecedent. Look at these examples:

I made it myself. OR I myself made it.
Have you yourself seen it? OR Have you seen it yourself?
The President himself promised to stop the war.
She spoke to me herself. OR She herself spoke to me.
The exam itself wasn't difficult, but exam room was horrible.
Never mind. We'll do it ourselves.
You yourselves asked us to do it.
They recommend this book even though they themselves have never read it. OR They recommend this book even though they have never read it themselves.

Modal Auxiliaries

2010-01-05T01:25:00.001-08:00

Modal Auxiliaries

The modal auxiliaries (or modals) include the following:

can, could, may, might, must, should, will, would, . . .

Modals are always followed by the base form of a verb or auxiliary verb.

Modals are always the same form no matter what the subject is.

In standard American English, a predicate verb phrase cannot contain more than one modal.
correct

He will be able to go.

not correct

* He will can go.

Below are example sentences containing the modal may and the verb go. Notice that the form of the modal does not change. Also notice that the base form of a verb or auxiliary verb always follows the modal.

I may go.

You may go.

He may go.

It may go.

We may go.

They may go.

He may have gone.

They may have gone.

He may be going.

They may be going.

He may have been going.

They may have been going.

Modals and related verb phrases add meanings to verbs. Below are some of those meanings:
Ability/Availability
future: will be able to
present: can, am/is/are able to
past: could, was/were able to
Requests
present/future: can, could, will, would
Permission
future: will be allowed to
present/future: may, can, could, am/is/are allowed to
past: could, was/were allowed to
Possibility
present/future: may, might, could
past: may have, might have, could have
Impossibility
present/future: couldn’t, can’t
past: couldn’t have
Advisability
present/future: should, ought to, had better
past: should have, ought to have, had better have
Expectation
present/future: should, ought to
past: should have, ought to have
Necessity
future: will have to
present/future: must, have to, has to
past: had to
Lack of Necessity
future: won’t have to
present/future: don’t have to, doesn’t have to
past: didn’t have to
Prohibition
present/future: must not, may not, cannot
past: could not
Logical Deduction (=Probability)
present: must, have to, has to
past: must have, have to have, has to have

SOCIAL MODALS
The choice of modal depends partly on the social situation.
We often use formal language with strangers (people we don’t know) and superiors (people with some power over us such as our employers, doctors, and teachers).
We often use informal language with our equals (our friends and family) and subordinates (people we have some power over such as our employees or children).
General requests (present and/or future):

Will you help me? (Informal Are you willing?)
Would you help me (Formal Are you willing?)
Can you help me? (Informal Are you able?)
Could you help me (Formal Are you able?)

Requests for permission (present and/or future):

May I leave the room? (Formal)
Might I leave the room? (Formal rarely used)
Could I leave the room? (Less formal
Can I leave the room? (Informal)

Expressing suggestions, advice, warnings, necessity (present and/or future):
The choice of modal depends partly on the urgency of the message or the authority of the speaker/writer or both.

Suggestions:
You could see the doctor.
You might see the doctor.

Advice:
You should see the doctor.
You ought to see the doctor.

Warning/strong advice:
You had better see the doctor.

Strong advice/necessity:
You have to see the doctor.
You have got to see the doctor.
You must see the doctor.

No choice:
You will see the doctor.

MODALS OF BELIEF (beliefs about present time)
The choice of modal depends partly on what the speaker or writer believes.
Someone is knocking at the door.
That could be Fred.
That might be Fred.

= It’s possible. I’m less than 50% sure.

That may be Fred.

= It’s possible. I’m less than 60% sure.

That should be Fred.
That ought to be Fred.

= I’m expecting Fred and I think he’s here.

That must be Fred.
That has to be Fred.
That has got to be Fred.

= It’s probably Fred. I have a good reason to believe it is Fred.

That will be Fred.

= I believe it is Fred. I’m about 99% sure.

That can’t be Mary.
That couldn’t be Mary.

= It’s impossible. I’m about 99% sure.

That is Fred.

= I know it’s Fred. I’m 100% sure.

MODALS OF BELIEF (beliefs about past time)
The choice of modal depends partly on what the speaker or writer believes.
Someone was knocking at the door.
That could have been Fred.
That might have been Fred.

= It’s possible. I’m less than 50% sure.

That may have been Fred.

= It’s possible. I’m less than 60% sure.

That must have been Fred.
That has to have been Fred.
That has got to have been Fred.

= It was probably Fred. I have a good reason to believe it was Fred.

That couldn’t have been Mary.

= It’s impossible. I’m about 99% sure.

That was Fred.

= I know it was Fred. I’m 100% sure.

MODALS OF BELIEF (beliefs about future time) The choice of modal depends partly on what the speaker or writer believes.
What will the weather be like tomorrow?
It could rain tomorrow.
It might rain tomorrow.

= It’s possible. I’m less than 50% sure.

It may rain tomorrow.

= It’s possible. I’m less than 60% sure.

It should rain tomorrow.
It ought to rain tomorrow.

= I expect it will rain.

It will rain tomorrow.

= I believe it is going to rain. I’m about 99% sure.

It couldn’t snow tomorrow.

= It’s impossible. I’m about 99% sure.

Making a general business

2010-01-05T00:34:00.000-08:00

How to Write the Perfect
Refusal or Rejection Letter

Refusal Letter

Imagine this scenario: you've been offered a desirable position and you've accepted it. Now it's time to write a Refusal Letter to any other companies that may have offered you employment. You should notify them as soon as possible so they can resume their employee search. It is a mark of professional courtesy to send a Refusal Letter.
Here are some guidelines for your Refusal Letter:

Say "Thank you." Graciously thank the employer for his/her time, interview(s), offer of employment, and any special considerations that may have given you during the hiring process.
State your refusal clearly. Don't use a buffer to begin a negative message. Experienced employers can anticipate what's coming anyway. Be courteous, but get to the point quickly.
Explain your reasons. The more specific the reason for refusal, the better. For example, tell the employer that you have accepted another offer because it more closely matches your educational degree, your career goals, your desired job location, etc.
Close the letter courteously. Close the door on your relationship gently by ending on a note of goodwill. Who knows? You may be approaching this same employer for another job down the road.

Rejection Letter

If you are writing a Rejection Letter for another reason, your goal should be to make the reader feel that he/she would do the same thing if the situation were reversed.

Get to the point. It is better to deliver the message of rejection in the beginning rather than placing it farther down in the Rejection Letter.
Be brief—don't verbally attack the point. You want to be straightforward, not argumentative. Briefly state how you came to your decision. This will help the reader realize that you were trying to make a decision that was best for everyone.
Make the ending short and sweet. Depending on the circumstances, conclude with a statement of goodwill. However, this is not always necessary. In some situations, positive endings actually annoy readers and sound condescending. The professional wording and tone of your Rejection Letter are the most important considerations.
Close the letter courteously. Close the door on your relationship gently by ending on a note of goodwill. Who knows? You may consider this applicant for another job down the road. A friend of mine turned down a company twice. The owner said, "Good people like you are hard to find. We hope you apply again. Three times is a charm."
Final Note: As a mark of professional courtesy, send your Refusal or Rejection Letter in a timely manner—as soon as you officially accept the position you have chosen.

Sample of Refusal Letters :
Dear ___:

According to our records, there have been some incongruities regarding your statement about your qualification for the YMCA Apple Scholarship. We do not have a scholarship application for you on file. Therefore, we will not be able to provide financial assistance for the $_______ in summer camp fees. We apologize for any inconvenience this causes and urge you to contact us so that this matter can be settled quickly and satisfactorily.

The programs are entering their fifth week of operation for this summer. We want all interested children to enjoy our exciting and character-building activities: history camp, traditional day camp, sports camps and the half-pint camp. However, because of limited resources, camp fees must be paid in full.

We would be happy to go over this situation with you and, if necessary, discuss payment options for summer camp. If you would still like to apply for an Apple Scholarship, please remember that we will also need the following: copies of your tax return and W-2 form, a letter from your employer verifying your current salary and a letter describing what the scholarship would mean to you.

Please contact us as soon as possible. As we mentioned, it is imperative that the cost of each attending camper be covered.

Thank you for your current participation in the YMCA's programs. We hope that you and your family will continue to enjoy our facilities and services.

Sincerely,

How to write an acknowledgment letter:

Offer a polite, appreciative response that helps clarify what is expected of you. Be sure you have a clear definition of your role from the outset to avoid misunderstandings later.
Send the acknowledgment letter within a couple of days of receiving the original letter, report, order, etc.
Include a short, sincere apology if the acknowledgment letter is delayed.
Since the reader may be dissatisfied or defensive, make this letter especially courteous. You may wish to apologize for any inconvenience, miscommunication, or problem, but emphasize that you are making restitution.
Be sincere—most people can sense when you aren't being honest.
Address your letter to a specific person, if possible, not just the company or organization in general.

Acknowledgment letters let others know that you value their time and opinion. They allow you to:

Acknowledge or confirm that you have received a letter, order, report, etc. and that you are acting on it.
Communicate important information such as when something will arrive, how you will deliver it, what other products or services you can offer, and so forth.
Assure a client, co-worker, or associate that you will take the correspondence that you received from him or her seriously.
Express appreciation for the letter, invitation, or other document that you received.
Recognize the accomplishments and achievements of customers, business associates, and civic leaders.
Highlight the contributions, merits, or value of someone or something.
Confirm and clarify a decision or oral agreement in writing.
Build goodwill and trust.

Gerund

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Exercise 1
Gerund after prepositions
1.My friend is good at playing volleyball.
2. She complains about bullying.
3. They are afraid of losing the match.
4. She doesn't feel like working on the computer.
5. We are looking forward to going out at the weekend.
6. Laura dreams of living on a small island.
7. Andrew apologized for being late.
8. Do you agree with staying in a foreign country?
9. The girls insisted on going out with Kerry.
10.Edward thinks of climbing trees this afternoon.

Exercise 2

Gerund or to-infinitive

1. I can't imagine Peter going by bike.

2. He agreed to buy a new car.
3. The question is easy to answer.
4. The man asked me how to get to the airport.
5. I look forward to seeing you at the weekend.
6. Are you thinking of visiting London?
7. We decided to run through the forest.
8. The teacher expected Sarah to study hard.
9. She doesn't mind working the night shift.
10. I learned to ride the bike at the age of 5.

Exercise 3
Gerund or infinitive

1. We decided to buy a new car.
2. They've got some work to do.
3. Peter gave up smoking.
4. He'd like to fly an aeroplane.
5. I enjoy writing picture postcards.
6. Do you know what to do if there's a fire in the shop?
7. Avoid making silly mistakes.
8. My parents wanted me to be home at 11 o'clock.
9. I dream about building a big house.
10. I'm hoping to see Lisa.

Practise in describing company location

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it should always be related to the job. Remember, although the employer is asking personal questions, they are still all related to "what can you bring to the company?" So, I usually give adjectives like reliable, loyal, etc., but make sure you back these with supporting examples. The most important thing is to make sure you boil it all down to presenting the answer in a way that it matches the things the employer is looking for.

Here is more advice :

• Think about what kind of person you would like working for you and convey that to the employer. The best advice I can give to a job seeker is first aim high, well as high as you are capable of and realize the more you are willing to learn through experience or school is valuable. See yourself as a commodity. Be honest about your capabilities, if you don't know how to do something, say you don't know but let the employer know you are capable of learning and even give an example of something else you learned to do, maybe at another job or even a hobby. Most jobs will have to train you to their way and processes so don't undermine your capability and be proud of your accomplishments in life because they will only bring you up.

• Just list off a few characteristics that you see yourself as having. Make all of the characteristics sound as positive as possible. This question is usually asked in order to gauge how a person perceives him- or herself. Just be honest. Are you outgoing? Shy? Diligent? Stubborn? Clever? Passionate? Level-headed? Easy-going? etc., etc. Don't stress too much.

If you can't think of anything, think of a few people who know you and imagine how they would describe you. Pretend that your mom, a sibling, a good friend, a co-worker, and your spouse or significant other are all sitting down in a room making a list of your characteristics and then use the things you think they would say.

• A job interview is NO TIME to be shy. Brag about yourself. It's expected. Brag about all of your good points and don't mention anything negative or anything you "can't do." Be positive and upbeat.

• With complete honesty, don't try to make yourself better than you are, but don't yourself down, either.

• Employers love to ask you questions that get to your perception of yourself. These may come in several forms - "How do you describe yourself"; "What are the qualities you possess that make you the best candidate for this job"; "What do you bring to this company that will make this company stronger" or a variation on these are commonly asked.

• Your resume should already have a personal statement that discusses your qualities - in the most positive terms possible. Make sure you are familiar with your resume. VERY familiar. This is especially important if you didn't write it yourself, or if you have multiple resumes tailored to different positions.

• Because this is such a common question, it may be a good idea to sit down ahead of time and list 4-5 qualities and examples in your previous experience where these qualities allowed you to overcome a problem or succeed at a task.

• Remember, the interview is not a "game"
where you are trying to outsmart the interviewer to get the job. Your best strategy is to honestly sell yourself and your abilities to an employer to get a job that is a good fit for you, in a company that is a good fit for you. Outsmarting an interviewer to get a job in a company or position that ultimately leads to unhappiness on either or both sides is really outsmarting yourself.

• Give a fair answer, tell them about your strong and weak points, but try to emphasize some of your qualities. For example, you could say that you are a hard-working, responsible, serious person, you are able to handle with people, able to work under stress, you are an easy learner. Don't be shy to talk about your creative "side".But be honest, admit that you also had some "bad moments" in your past jobs.

• Your answer should be relevant to the job for which you are being interviews. Do not start going into your personal life. Keep your self-introduction professional!

• A person is defined in three ways: (1) who he is right now, (2) what he has done in the past, and (3) what he will become in the future.

So, here is how you answer: (1) I am a [the job title for which you are applying or something very close.] (2) I have [how many years of experience] in [what field, what subject]. (3) I want to be [a job title that is a couple or a few levels above the current position for which you are applying in 5 to 10 years.] Close your answer with an affirmative question: "Is there anything else you want to know?"

• You should be very straightforward and honest in replying to this question. The interviewer wants to check if what you have mentioned in your resume is correct or not.

• I would answer the question based on who is interviewing me? If it's a sales manager/Technical Manager/Human resources manager? Depending on the person's field I'll have to mend the answer to please him... I feel that everyone's goals are different... so analyze that and then answer.

• Answer this question with your 30-second "elevator speech" about yourself. The standard format for this speech is... "I am a (BLANK), who does (WHAT)." In my case... I am a PROJECT MANAGER, who PROVIDES QUALITY MANAGEMENT SOLUTIONS, Blah, Blah, Blah. (you get the idea).

• Let me share what my recruiting office tells its candidates as they head out for that crucial face-to-face interview. When asked to "tell me about yourself," say, "I will gladly answer that question, but may I first ask you a question? (They ALWAYS say yes) So that I may better focus my answer, what are the issues you want me to address should you hire me? Once they share with you what they need to have you do, then proceed to address how your training, education, skills, and experience can best resolve these issues. By answering in this fashion, you have proven that you know how to focus ... and that you have what's needed to fix the issues they need to have fixed. It's always a winner ... and beats the heck out of, "Well, let's see, I was born on a small farm in Idaho ..."

• I suggest you go into the interview with a few "talking points" about yourself, in other words things you want the interviewer to know about you. Then you try to hit those points in response to any questions you are asked, such as "tell us about yourself." Also be sure to have copies of your resume with you and offer them. In general, interviews go better when you spend them listening and don't talk. If the interviewer is just telling you about the job, you might have a good shot at it.

• This is the chance for you to run down a 30-60 second sales pitch for yourself. The employer doesn't want to know that you like gardening or have four dogs. Here's where you start usually with your education and highlight selling points about your skills, experience and goals.

More Suggestions :

It's one of the most frequently asked questions in an interview: Tell me about yourself. Your response to this request will set the tone for the rest of the interview. For some, this is the most challenging question to answer, as they wonder what the interviewer really wants to know and what information they should include.

The secret to successfully responding to this free-form request is to focus, script and practice. You cannot afford to wing this answer, as it will affect the rest of the interview. Begin to think about what you want the interviewer to know about you.

List five strengths you have that are pertinent to this job (experiences, traits, skills, etc.). What do you want the interviewer to know about you when you leave?
Prepare a script that includes the information you want to convey. Begin by talking about past experiences and proven success.

Next, mention your strengths and abilities :

"My real strength is my attention to detail. I pride myself on my reputation for following through and meeting deadlines. When I commit to doing something, I make sure it gets done, and on time."

Conclude with a statement about your current situation:

"What I am looking for now is a company that values customer relations, where I can join a strong team and have a positive impact on customer retention and sales."

Practice with your script until you feel confident about what you want to emphasize in your statement. Your script should help you stay on track, but you shouldn't memorize it -- you don't want to sound stiff and rehearsed. It should sound natural and conversational.

Even if you are not asked this type of question to begin the interview, this preparation will help you focus on what you have to offer. You will also find that you can use the information in this exercise to assist you in answering other questions. The more you can talk about your product - you - the better chance you will have at selling it.

Here are examples given by Contributors :

• Hard worker, quick and eager learner, pays attention to detail.
• Example : Because of past experience and MBA degree, I am versatile and can perform well in many kinds of positions. Now I am looking for a challenging internship position in an established company. Basically, I am an experienced and flexible person can be successful at any kind of finance works.
• "Hardworking", "Task-oriented", "Solution-oriented", "Dependable", "Motivated", "Independent", "Team player" are all examples of good terms you can use. There are many more.
• I am a self-starter dedicated, hard-working person who works well with other, punctual, detail oriented a team player, great organizational and interpersonal skills.
• Describe yourself as outgoing, hardworking, dependable, eager to learn and grow professionally, etc.
• Fast paced, quick learner and very challenging. That's all they want to hear.
• This question is usually asked in order to gauge how a person perceives himself
• Just be honest. List off a few characteristics that you see yourself as having. Actually, a question of this kind is an ideal way to plug in everything we want to say about ourselves that we had leave out of the CV
• If you have attended a premier institution, say that the institution taught you much more than the degree it awarded you. Mention people who influenced you, talk about the books you like reading, your hobbies and your other interests
• Talk about your strengths. Mention an instance when you used your conflict resolution skills or selling skills or whatever. But make certain that it does not sound like blowing your trumpet. Mention these instances as a good learning experience
• Talk about your weaknesses, but make sure that they are positive weaknesses. For instance you could say that that you are a person that pays more attention to details than is warranted. You can openly confess a tendency to be impatient with team members who cannot carry their own weight, or who cannot contribute sufficiently
• Maintain the right tone in doing so. You do not want to give the interviewer the wrong impression or make him feel that you get impatient at times
• No one can do that for you as only you know yoursel
• If asked to then you should do so. Prepare yourself for personal questions such as thi
• Just list off a few characteristics that you see yourself as having. If it's for a job interview, make all of the characteristics sound as positive as possible. This question is usually asked in order to gauge how a person perceives him or herself. Just be honest. Are you outgoing? shy? diligent? stubborn? clever? passionate? level-headed?
• Don't stress too much. If you can't think of anything. Then think of a few people who know you and imagine how they would describe you. Pretend that your mom, a sibling, a good friend, a co-worker, and your spouse or significant other are all sitting down in a room making a list of your characteristics and then use the things you think they would say.
• Do not mention a bad quality if you are not working on it eg. what is your weakest quality? I am not very competent using computers but I am currently taking a evening course to rectify that/ i am going to.
• Most importantly back up what you say, why are you reliable?

E-mail

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Electronic mail, often abbreviated as email, e.mail or e-mail, is a method of exchanging digital messages. E-mail systems are based on a store-and-forward model in which e-mail computer server systems accept, forward, deliver and store messages on behalf of users, who only need to connect to the e-mail infrastructure, typically an e-mail server, with a network-enabled device (e.g., a personal computer) for the duration of message submission or retrieval. Originally, e-mail was always transmitted directly from one user's device to another's; nowadays this is rarely the case.

An electronic mail message consists of two components, the message header, and the message body, which is the email's content. The message header contains control information, including, minimally, an originator's email address and one or more recipient addresses. Usually additional information is added, such as a subject header field.

Originally a text-only communications medium, email was extended to carry multi-media content attachments, which were standardized in with RFC 2045 through RFC 2049, collectively called, Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME).

The foundation for today's global Internet e-mail service was created in the early ARPANET and standards for encoding of messages were proposed as early as 1973 (RFC 561). An e-mail sent in the early 1970s looked very similar to one sent on the Internet today. Conversion from the ARPANET to the Internet in the early 1980s produced the core of the current service.

Network-based email was initially exchanged on the ARPANET in extensions to the File Transfer Protocol (FTP), but is today carried by the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), first published as Internet standard 10 (RFC 821) in 1982. In the process of transporting email messages between systems, SMTP communicates delivery parameters using a message envelope separately from the message (headers and body) itself.

Spelling

There are several spelling variations that are occasionally the cause of vehement disagreement.

email is the form officially required by IETF Request for Comments and working groups and is also recognized in most dictionaries.

e-mail is a form still recommended by some prominent journalistic and technical style guides.

Less common forms include eMail and simply mail.

mail was the form used in the original RFC. The service is referred to as mail and a single piece of electronic mail is called a message.

eMail, capitalizing only the letter M, was common among ARPANET users and early developers from Unix, CMS, AppleLink, eWorld, AOL, GEnie, and Hotmail.

EMail is a traditional form that has been used in RFCs for the "Author's Address" and is expressly required "...for historical reasons...".

Origin

Electronic mail predates the inception of the Internet, and was in fact a crucial tool in creating the Internet.

MIT first demonstrated the Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS) in 1961.It allowed multiple users to log into the IBM 7094 from remote dial-up terminals, and to store files online on disk. This new ability encouraged users to share information in new ways. E-mail started in 1965 as a way for multiple users of a time-sharing mainframe computer to communicate. Although the exact history is murky, among the first systems to have such a facility were SDC's Q32 and MIT's CTSS.

Host-based mailsystems

The original email systems allowed communication only between users who logged into the one host or "mainframe", but this could be hundreds or thousands of users within a company or university. By 1966 (or earlier, it is possible that the SAGE system had something similar some time before), such systems allowed email between different companies as long as they ran compatible operating systems, but not to other dissimilar systems.

Examples include BITNET, IBM PROFS, Digital All-in-1 and the original Unix mail.

LAN-based mailsystems

From the early 1980s networked personal computers on LANs became increasingly important - and server-based systems similar to the earlier mainframe systems developed, and again initially allowed communication only between users logged into the one server, but these also could generally be linked between different companies as long as they ran the same email system and (proprietary) protocol.

Examples include cc:Mail, WordPerfect Office, Microsoft Mail, Banyan VINES and Lotus Notes - with various vendors supplying gateway software to link these incompatible systems.

Attempts at Interoperability

• Novell briefly championed the open MHS protocol
• uucp was used as an open "glue" between differing mail systems
• The Coloured Book protocols on UK academic networks until 1992
• X.400 in the early 1990s was mandated for government use under GOSIP but almost immediately abandoned by all but a few — in favour of Internet SMTP

The rise of ARPANET-based mail

The ARPANET computer network made a large contribution to the development of e-mail. There is one report that indicates experimental inter-system e-mail transfers began shortly after its creation in 1969.Ray Tomlinson is credited by some as having sent the first email, initiating the use of the "@" sign to separate the names of the user and the user's machine in 1971, when he sent a message from one Digital Equipment Corporation DEC-10 computer to another DEC-10. The two machines were placed next to each other. The ARPANET significantly increased the popularity of e-mail, and it became the killer app of the ARPANET.

Most other networks had their own email protocols and address formats; as the influence of the ARPANET and later the Internet grew, central sites often hosted email gateways that passed mail between the Internet and these other networks. Internet email addressing is still complicated by the need to handle mail destined for these older networks. Some well-known examples of these were UUCP (mostly Unix computers), BITNET (mostly IBM and VAX mainframes at universities), FidoNet (personal computers), DECNET (various networks) and CSNet a forerunner of NSFNet.

An example of an Internet email address that routed mail to a user at a UUCP host:

hubhost!middlehost!edgehost!user@uucpgateway.somedomain.example.com

This was necessary because in early years UUCP computers did not maintain (or consult servers for) information about the location of all hosts they exchanged mail with, but rather only knew how to communicate with a few network neighbors; email messages (and other data such as Usenet News) were passed along in a chain among hosts who had explicitly agreed to share data with each other.

Message format

The Internet e-mail message format is defined in RFC 5322 and a series of RFCs, RFC 2045 through RFC 2049, collectively called, Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions, or MIME. Although as of July 13, 2005, RFC 2822 is technically a proposed IETF standard and the MIME RFCs are draft IETF standards,[these documents are the standards for the format of Internet e-mail. Prior to the introduction of RFC 2822 in 2001, the format described by RFC 822 was the standard for Internet e-mail for nearly 20 years; it is still the official IETF standard. The IETF reserved the numbers 5321 and 5322 for the updated versions of RFC 2821 (SMTP) and RFC 2822, as it previously did with RFC 821 and RFC 822, honoring the extreme importance of these two RFCs. RFC 822 was published in 1982 and based on the earlier RFC 733.

Internet e-mail messages consist of two major sections:

• Header — Structured into fields such as summary, sender, receiver, and other information about the e-mail.
• Body — The message itself as unstructured text; sometimes containing a signature block at the end. This is exactly the same as the body of a regular letter.
The header is separated from the body by a blank line.

Message header

Each message has exactly one header, which is structured into fields. Each field has a name and a value. RFC 5322 specifies the precise syntax.

Informally, each line of text in the header that begins with a printable character begins a separate field. The field name starts in the first character of the line and ends before the separator character ":". The separator is then followed by the field value (the "body" of the field). The value is continued onto subsequent lines if those lines have a space or tab as their first character. Field names and values are restricted to 7-bit ASCII characters. Non-ASCII values may be represented using MIME encoded words.

Header fields

The message header should include at least the following fields:

• From: The e-mail address, and optionally the name of the author(s). In many e-mail clients not changeable except through changing account settings.
• To: The e-mail address(es), and optionally name(s) of the message's recipient(s). Indicates primary recipients (multiple allowed), for secondary recipients see Cc: and Bcc: below.
• Subject: A brief summary of the topic of the message.
• Date: The local time and date when the message was written. Like the From: field, many email clients fill this in automatically when sending. The recipient's client may then display the time in the format and time zone local to her.
• Message-ID: Also an automatically generated field; used to prevent multiple delivery and for reference in In-Reply-To: (see below).

Note that the "To:" field is not necessarily related to the addresses to which the message is delivered. The actual delivery list is supplied separately to the transport protocol, SMTP, which may or may not originally have been extracted from the header content. The "To:" field is similar to the addressing at the top of a conventional letter which is delivered according to the address on the outer envelope. Also note that the "From:" field does not have to be the real sender of the e-mail message. One reason is that it is very easy to fake the "From:" field and let a message seem to be from any mail address. It is possible to digitally sign e-mail, which is much harder to fake, but such signatures require extra programming and often external programs to verify. Some Internet service providers do not relay e-mail claiming to come from a domain not hosted by them, but very few (if any) check to make sure that the person or even e-mail address named in the "From:" field is the one associated with the connection. Some Internet service providers apply e-mail authentication systems to e-mail being sent through their MTA to allow other MTAs to detect forged spam that might appear to come from them.

RFC 3864 describes registration procedures for message header fields at the IANA; it provides for permanent and provisional message header field names, including also fields defined for MIME, netnews, and http, and referencing relevant RFCs. Common header fields for email include:

• Bcc: Blind Carbon Copy; addresses added to the SMTP delivery list but not (usually) listed in the message data, remaining invisible to other recipients.
• Cc: Carbon copy; Many e-mail clients will mark e-mail in your inbox differently depending on whether you are in the To: or Cc: list.
• Content-Type: Information about how the message is to be displayed, usually a MIME type.
• In-Reply-To: Message-ID of the message that this is a reply to. Used to link related messages together.
• Precedence: commonly with values "bulk", "junk", or "list"; used to indicate that automated "vacation" or "out of office" responses should not be returned for this mail, eg. to prevent vacation notices from being sent to all other subscribers of a mailinglist.
• Received: Tracking information generated by mail servers that have previously handled a message, in reverse order (last handler first).
• References: Message-ID of the message that this is a reply to, and the message-id of the message the previous was reply a reply to, etc.
• Reply-To: Address that should be used to reply to the message.
• Sender: Address of the actual sender acting on behalf of the author listed in the From: field (secretary, list manager, etc.).
• X-Face: Small icon.

Message body

Content encoding

E-mail was originally designed for 7-bit ASCII. Much e-mail software is 8-bit clean but must assume it will communicate with 8-bit servers and mail readers. The MIME standard introduced character set specifiers and two content transfer encodings to enable transmission of non-ASCII data: quoted printable for mostly 7 bit content with a few characters outside that range and base64 for arbitrary binary data. The 8BITMIME extension was introduced to allow transmission of mail without the need for these encodings but many mail transport agents still do not support it fully. In some countries, several encoding schemes coexist; as the result, by default, the message in a non-Latin alphabet language appears in non-readable form (the only exception is coincidence, when the sender and receiver use the same encoding scheme). Therefore, for international character sets, Unicode is growing in popularity.

Uses

In society

There are numerous ways in which people have changed the way they communicate in the last 50 years; e-mail is certainly one of them. Traditionally, social interaction in the local community was the basis for communication – face to face. Yet, today face-to-face meetings are no longer the primary way to communicate as one can use a landline telephone, mobile phones or any number of the computer mediated communications such as e-mail.

Research has shown that people actively use e-mail to maintain core social networks, particularly when others live at a distance. However, contradictory to previous research, the results suggest that increases in Internet usage are associated with decreases in other modes of communication, with proficiency of Internet and e-mail use serving as a mediating factor in this relationship.With the introduction of chat messengers and video conference there are more ways to communicate.

Flaming

Flaming occurs when a person sends a message with angry or antagonistic content. Flaming is assumed to be more common today because of the ease and impersonality of e-mail communications: confrontations in person or via telephone require direct interaction, where social norms encourage civility, whereas typing a message to another person is an indirect interaction, so civility may be forgotten. Flaming is generally looked down upon by Internet communities as it is considered rude and non-productive.

E-mail bankruptcy

Also known as "e-mail fatigue", e-mail bankruptcy is when a user ignores a large number of e-mail messages after falling behind in reading and answering them. The reason for falling behind is often due to information overload and a general sense there is so much information that it is not possible to read it all. As a solution, people occasionally send a boilerplate message explaining that the e-mail inbox is being cleared out. Stanford University law professor Lawrence Lessig is credited with coining this term, but he may only have popularized it.

In business

E-mail was widely accepted by the business community as the first broad electronic communication medium and was the first ‘e-revolution’ in business communication. E-mail is very simple to understand and like postal mail, e-mail solves two basic problems of communication: logistics and synchronization (see below). LAN based email is also an emerging form of usage for business. It not only allows the business user to download mail when offline, it also provides the small business user to have multiple users e-mail ID's with just one e-mail connection.

Letter of Inquiry

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Letter of Inquiry

A letter of inquiry is a general term used for a number of different kinds of business letters addressed to a company. For example, applicants usually send a letter of inquiry, with an enclosed résumé (CV), to an employer for whom they would like to work. Companies send a letter of inquiry to their business partner when they need information about the goods they'd like to order. A letter of inquiry is usually short and to the point, containing only the request and a short introduction with an address, phone number or e-mail address from the sender's side.

General Format

Elements

Business letters (in the United States) usually contain the following elements, in order:
• Sender's address & contact information.
• Date of writing.
• Subject.
• Recipient's name, title, company, & address.
• Salutation/greeting.
• Message (body of the letter).
• Valediction/closing.
• Sender's signature.
• Sender's name, title, company.

In some situations, a business letter may also include the following optional information:

• Enclosures (Encl.: or Enc.:).
• Carbon Copy Recipients (cc:).
• Reference Initials (of the typist, if different from original author of letter).

Line Spacing

In general, each element or paragraph of the letter is followed by a single blank line, except:

• the date, followed by three or four blank lines.
• the final content paragraph, followed by two blank lines.
• the valediction/closing, followed by three or four blank lines (enough for the sender to sign the letter), and
• the sender's title, followed by two blank lines.

Font Formatting

No special character or font formatting is used, except for the subject line, which is usually underlined.

Punctuation

The salutation/greeting is generally followed by a comma, although in the United States a colon is often preferred. The valediction/closing is followed by a comma.

Example Template

[SENDER'S NAME]
[SENDER'S ADDRESS]
[SENDER'S PHONE]
[SENDER'S E-MAIL]

[DATE]

[RECIPIENT W/O PREFIX]
[RECIPIENT'S TITLE]
[RECIPIENT'S COMPANY]
[RECIPIENT'S ADDRESS]

(Optional) Attention [DEPARTMENT/PERSON],

Dear [RECIPIENT W/ PREFIX],

Re: [SUBJECT]

[CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT
CONTENT CONTENT. CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT
CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT. CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT
CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT.]

[CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT
CONTENT CONTENT. CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT
CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT. CONTENT CONENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT
CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT CONTENT.]

[VALEDICTION (Sincerely, Respectfully, Regards, etc.)],

[SENDER]
[SENDER'S TITLE]

Enclosures ([NUMBER OF ENCLOSURES])

cc: [CC RECIPIENT], [CC RECIPIENT TITLE]
[CC RECIPIENT], [CC RECIPIENT TITLE]

Indentation Formats

Business letters generally conform to one of four indentation formats: Block, Semi-Block, Modified Block, and Modified Semi-Block. Put simply, "Semi-" means that the first lines of paragraphs are indented; "Modified" means that the sender's address, date, and closing are significantly indented.

Block

In a Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, (2) paragraphs are not indented.

Semi-Block

In a Semi-Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, (2) paragraphs are indented.

Modified Block

In a Modified Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, except for the author's address, date, and closing; and (2) paragraphs are not indented. The author's address, date, and closing are usually indented three inches from the left margin, but can be set anywhere to the right of the middle of the page, as long as all three elements are indented to the same position.

Modified Semi-Block

In a Modified Semi-Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, except for the author's address, date, and closing; and (2) paragraphs are indented. The author's address, date, and closing are usually indented three inches from the left margin, but can be set anywhere to the right of the middle of the page, as long as all three elements are indented to the same position.

Not same at all places

The format of a letter is not same at all places. So if you are a school student, then don't fully accept this if your syllabus is different.

Example :

CBSE Board (India)
The usual format (If I am writing)...
My Address
(leave a line)
Date (DD Month YYYY)
(Leave one line)
Receiver's Designation & Address(Can take 2 or more lines)
(leave a line)
Sub:-_______________________________________(Subject)
(leave a line)
Salutation"Sir"
(leave a line)
Body:
Parah 1-What , Why and other initials
(Leave a line)
Parah 2-Describe the problem
(Leave a line)
Parah 3-Request for help or action
(leave a line)
Complementary Close "Yours Faithfully" "Abc" (my name)

• A letter of inquiry clearly and concisely describes: the project, its aims, its significance, its duration and the amount of funds required. The document should never exceed five pages.
• Generally they are 2-3 pages.
• The letter of inquiry should not include any additional supporting information such as videotapes, financial reports, annual reports.
• Letter confirming organization’s charitable/tax-exempt status may be required.

Components of a Letter of Inquiry

• Opening paragraph.
• Statement of need/rationale.
• Organizational description/expertise.
• Description of the project (include timeline and outcomes).
• Budget request and information.
• Closing.

Opening Paragraph

• Summary statement.
• Stand alone.
• Make it clear what you want the reader to do.
• Answer the following questions.
• What are you proposing to do.
• How much is being requested.
• Over what time period.
• Say if you are responding to an RFP.
• Keep the paragraph short.

Example of Opening Paragraph

Syracuse University is pleased to submit a letter of inquiry to the Getty Trust Campus Heritage Grants for the completion of a variety of structural and building envelope condition surveys. Our goal is to develop a comprehensive condition assessment and preservation plan that will be the basis of future capital projects that will ensure the preservation of our historic structures. We estimate the cost of the project will be $190,000. “

Statement of Need

• Who is affected by the problem.
• What factors, or causes, contribute to the existence of the problem.
• What can be done to ameliorate the problem.
• What your organization (and others) are doing to currently address the problem.
• What remains to be done.
• What consequences the target population will face if this need is not met.

Project Activity

• Give a general overview of the activities involved.
• Highlight why your approach is novel and deserving of funding.
• List other collaborators.

Outcomes (1-2) paragraphs)

• State what will be the specific outcomes achieved.
• Indicate how evaluation is part of the project – how will you know you’ve achieved these outcomes?

Credentials

• Demonstrate why you are best equipped to carry out this activity.
• Put any historic background about the institution here.
• Organizational capacity to carry out proposed project
• Major recent accomplishments

Budget

• State the total project cost and how much you will requesting
• Indicate broad categories of activities to be funded.
• Include other sources of funding, both cash and in-kind. Especially indicate what SU will contribute. Do not overlook the value of all in-kind contributions, including those of your collaborators.

Closing

• Offer to give any additional information the foundation might need.
• Give a contact name and contact information for foundation follow-up.
• Let them know that you will give them a call to follow up.
• Express appreciation for the reader’s attention.
• Ask, “May we submit a full proposal?”.

Inquiry Letter Example

1102 West 30th
Lawrence, KS 66321
August 4, 19XX

Dr. Maria Gomez-Salinas
Director of the Diabetes Clinic
St. David's Hospital
1000 Greenberg Lane
Wichita, KS 66780

Dear Dr. Gomez-Salinas:

I am writing you in hopes of finding out more about how the
new Glucoscan II blood glucose monitoring system, which a
representative at Lifescan informed me that your clinic is
currently using.

Originally, I saw Lifescan's advertisement of this new
device in the January 19XX issue of Diabetes Forecast and
became very interested in it. I wrote the company and got
much useful information, but was recommended to write
several current users of the system as well.

For a technical report that I am writing for a technical
writing class at Johnson County Junior College, I need some
help with the following questions:

1. How often does the Glucoscan II need to be calibrated in practical, everyday use conditions?
2. How accurate is the Glucoscan II compared to other similar systems that your patients have used?
3. What problems do your patients experience with this new device?

The Lifescan representative indicated that your clinic is
one the leaders in implementing new technology for
diabetics, and therefore I am eager to hear from you. In
the report I will acknowledge your contributions, and I
will send you a copy of the completed report if you wish.

Thank you for your time, and I hope to hear from you soon.

Sincerely,

Anita Teller
Student, Medical Technology
Johnson County Junior College

material for business english 1 final exam

2010-01-02T00:38:00.000-08:00

Thursday, 31 ^th December 2009
Exercise

1. If you don't register before the last day of regular registration, you would
                      A                                    B
    pay a late fee.
     C    D
   * Answer : A, the correct answer is didn't register.
2. Basal body of temperature refer to the lowest temperature of a healthy
                                                    A               B                                       C
    individual during waiting hours.
                                       D
   * Answer : A, the correct answer is refers.
3. If your friends came to visit, will they stay in a hotel or at your house ?
                                            A      B            C                                    D
    * Answer : B, the correct answer is would.
4. Our friends might stopped to see us on their way to California.
                                        A         B          C      D
    * Answer : A, the correct answer is stop.
5. Water boil at 212'F, and freezes at 32' F.
         A        B                              C
    * Answer : B, the correct answer is boils.
6. Many birds will, in the normal course of their migrations, flies more than
                                                                         A                           B
    three thousand miles to reach their winter homes.
                                              C                               D
   * Answer : B, the correct answer is fly.
7. The sheepdog is chased after the sheep which is heading over the hill.
                                 A            B                              C                  D
   * Answer : A, the correct answer is chasing.
8. Before the report is finalized the information in their notes and our must
                                  A                                          B                      C      D
    be proofed.
   * Answer : C, the correct answer is ours.
9. I really miss to be with my close friends in my country.
                  A         B                     C                                 D
   * Answer : B, the correct answer is being.
10. We have been hoping going to Mecca for many years.
              A      B         C            D
    * Answer : D, the correct answer is go.
11. Kayla ask Safira forget to give presentations of their projects yesterday.
                                     A            B                                    C         D
    * Answer : A, the correct answer is forgot.
12. Gina have given contribition to the developmnet of Islam many times.
                   A      B                                                                           C         D
    * Answer : A, the correct answer is has.
13. Every morning fairuz begin learning to walk.
                A                              B            C            D
    * Answer : B, the correct answer is begins.

Daftar Otomatis Ke Seluruh Search Engine Google | SEO BLOGGER

2010-01-01T08:49:00.001-08:00

Daftar Otomatis Ke Seluruh Search Engine Google | SEO BLOGGER

if u have added ur acount in blogger so ur account in blogger will automatically register at search engine google.

Daftar Smiley Facebook

2010-01-01T08:49:00.000-08:00

Ini adalah daftar smiley, emotion atau emoticon facebook :

Angel	O:) atau O:-)
Confused	o.O atau O.o
Cry	:’(
Curly Lips	:3
Devil	3:) atau 3:-)
Sad	:-( atau :( atau :[ atau =(
Gasp	:-O atau :O atau :-o atau :o
Glasses	8-) atau 8) atau B-) atau B)
Grin	:-D atau :D atau =D
Grumpy	>:( atau >:-(
Heart	<3
Kiki	^_^
Kiss	:-* atau :*
Pacman	:v
Smile	:-) atau :) atau :] atau =)
Squint	-_-
Sunglasses	8-\| atau 8\| atau B-\| atau B\|
Tongue	:-P atau :P atau :-p atau :p atau =P
Unsure	:/ atau :-/ atau :\ atau :-\
Upset	>:O atau >:-O atau >:o atau >:-o
Wink	;-) atau ;)
Putnam	:putnam:
Robot	:\|]
Shark	(^^^)

( Sumber : http://forantum.blogspot.com )

Memo

2010-01-01T05:13:00.000-08:00

Memo merupakan pesan ringkas, yakni pesan yang ditulis seseorang dengan singkat, jelas, dan mudah untuk dipahami. Menurut pemakaiannya, memo ada yang bersifat resmi dan bersifat pribadi (tidak resmi). Memo bersifat resmi dipakai sebagai surat pernyataan dalam hubungan resmi dari seorang pimpinan kepada bawahannya. Memo bersifat pribadi dipakai sebagai nota atau surat pernyataan tidak resmi antar teman, saudara, atau orang lain yang memiliki hubungan akrab.

Ciri-ciri

1. Surat khusus yang dibuat khusus untuk keperluan dalam kantor atau organisasi
2. Dilihat dari peredarannya, sebuah kantor atau organisasi dapat menyampikan memo secara horizontal maupun secara vertikal
3. Penyampian secara horizotal merupakan penyampian memo kepada pihak yang memiliki jabatan satara
4. Penyampian secara vertikal merupakan penyampaian memo dari atasan kepada bawahan atau sebaliknya untuk mengingatkan atau memerintahkan sesuatu
5. Merupakan bentuk komunikasi yang berisi saran, arahan, atau penerangan mengenai sesuatu hal
6. Memiliki bagian surat yang lebih sederhana dibandingkan dengan surat resmi pada umumnya, terutama dalam isi surat.
7. Karena pedarannya yang terbatas, memo biasanya tidak mencantumkan identitas kantor, seperti nama kantor, nomor telepon, faksimili, dan kode pos, secara lengkap.

Ciri-ciri bentuk memo

Bentuk memo terdiri atas dua bagian:
• Kepala Memo
o Penerima
o Pengirim
o Perihal dan tanggal pengimin
o Paraf dan nama terang pengirim
• Isi, penulis langsung menyampikan pesan atau perintah dalam kalimat pendek dan lugas.

Memo

Audience and Purpose

Memos have a twofold purpose: they bring attention to problems and they solve problems. They accomplish their goals by informing the reader about new information like policy changes, price increases, or by persuading the reader to take an action, such as attend a meeting, or change a current production procedure. Regardless of the specific goal, memos are most effective when they connect the purpose of the writer with the interests and needs of the reader.

Choose the audience of the memo wisely. Ensure that all of the people that the memo is addressed to need to read the memo. If it is an issue involving only one person, do not send the memo to the entire office. Also, be certain that material is not too sensitive to put in a memo; sometimes the best forms of communication are face-to-face interaction or a phone call. Memos are most effectively used when sent to a small to moderate amount of people to communicate company or job objectives.

Parts of a Memo

Standard memos are divided into segments to organize the information and to help achieve the writer's purpose.

Heading Segment

The heading segment follows this general format:

TO: (readers' names and job titles)
FROM: (your name and job title)
DATE: (complete and current date)
SUBJECT: (what the memo is about, highlighted in some way)

Make sure you address the reader by his or her correct name and job title. You might call the company president "Maxi" on the golf course or in an informal note, but "Rita Maxwell, President" would be more appropriate for a formal memo. Be specific and concise in your subject line. For example, "Clothes" as a subject line could mean anything from a dress code update to a production issue. Instead use something like, "Fall Clothes Line Promotion."

Opening Segment

The purpose of a memo is usually found in the opening paragraph and includes: the purpose of the memo, the context and problem, and the specific assignment or task. Before indulging the reader with details and the context, give the reader a brief overview of what the memo will be about. Choosing how specific your introduction will be depends on your memo plan style. The more direct the memo plan, the more explicit the introduction should be. Including the purpose of the memo will help clarify the reason the audience should read this document. The introduction should be brief, and should be approximately the length of a short paragraph.

Context

The context is the event, circumstance, or background of the problem you are solving. You may use a paragraph or a few sentences to establish the background and state the problem. Oftentimes it is sufficient to use the opening of a sentence to completely explain the context, such as,

"Through market research and analysis..."

Include only what your reader needs, but be sure it is clear.

Task Segment

One essential portion of a memo is the task statement where you should describe what you are doing to help solve the problem. If the action was requested, your task may be indicated by a sentence opening like,

"You asked that I look at...."

If you want to explain your intentions, you might say,

"To determine the best method of promoting the new fall line, I will...."

Include only as much information as is needed by the decision-makers in the context, but be convincing that a real problem exists. Do no ramble on with insignificant details. If you are having trouble putting the task into words, consider whether you have clarified the situation. You may need to do more planning before you're ready to write your memo. Make sure your purpose-statement forecast divides your subject into the most important topics that the decision-maker needs.

Summary Segment

If your memo is longer than a page, you may want to include a separate summary segment. However, this section not necessary for short memos and should not take up a significant amount of space. This segment provides a brief statement of the key recommendations you have reached. These will help your reader understand the key points of the memo immediately. This segment may also include references to methods and sources you have used in your research.

Discussion Segments

The discussion segments are the longest portions of the memo, and are the parts in which you include all the details that support your ideas. Begin with the information that is most important. This may mean that you will start with key findings or recommendations. Start with your most general information and move to your specific or supporting facts. (Be sure to use the same format when including details: strongest to weakest.) The discussion segments include the supporting ideas, facts, and research that back up your argument in the memo. Include strong points and evidence to persuade the reader to follow your recommended actions. If this section is inadequate, the memo will not be as effective as it could be.

Closing Segment

After the reader has absorbed all of your information, you want to close with a courteous ending that states what action you want your reader to take. Make sure you consider how the reader will benefit from the desired actions and how you can make those actions easier. For example, you might say,

"I will be glad to discuss this recommendation with you during our Tuesday trip to the spa and follow through on any decisions you make."

Necessary Attachments

Make sure you document your findings or provide detailed information whenever necessary. You can do this by attaching lists, graphs, tables, etc. at the end of your memo. Be sure to refer to your attachments in your memo and add a notation about what is attached below your closing, like this:

Attached: Focus Group Results, January- May 2007

Format

The format of a memo follows the general guidelines of business writing. A memo is usually a page or two long, should be single spaced and left justified. Instead of using indentations to show new paragraphs, skip a line between sentences. Business materials should be concise and easy to read. Therefore it is beneficial to use headings and lists to help the reader pinpoint certain information.

You can help your reader understand your memo better by using headings for the summary and the discussion segments that follow it. Write headings that are short but that clarify the content of the segment. For example, instead of using "Summary" for your heading, try "New Advertising Recommendations," which is much more specific. The major headings you choose are the ones that should be incorporated in your purpose-statement in the opening paragraph.

For easy reading, put important points or details into lists rather than paragraphs when possible. This will draw the readers' attention to the section and help the audience remember the information better. Using lists will help you be concise when writing a memo.

The segments of the memo should be allocated in the following manner:

• Header: 1/8 of the memo
• Opening, Context and Task: 1/4 of the memo
• Summary, Discussion Segment: 1/2 of the memo
• Closing Segment, Necessary Attachments: 1/8 of the memo

This is a suggested distribution of the material to make writing memos easier. Not all memos will be the same and the structure can change as you see necessary. Different organizations may have different formatting procedures, so be flexible in adapting your writing skills.

Sample Memo

TO: Kelly Anderson, Marketing Executive

FROM: Jonathon Fitzgerald, Market Research Assistant

DATE: June 14, 2007

SUBJECT: Fall Clothes Line Promotion

Through market research and analysis, it has been discovered that the proposed advertising media for the new fall lines need to be reprioritized and changed. Findings from focus groups and surveys have made it apparent that we need to update our advertising efforts to align them with the styles and trends of young adults today. No longer are young adults interested in sitcoms as they watch reality televisions shows. Also, it is has become increasingly important to use the internet as a tool to communicate with our target audience to show our dominance in the clothing industry.

Internet Advertising

XYZ Company needs to focus advertising on internet sites that appeal to young people. According to surveys, 72% of our target market uses the internet for five hours or more per week. The following list shows in order of popularity the most frequented sites:

• Google
• Facebook
• Myspace
• EBay
• iTunes

Shifting our efforts from our other media sources such as radio and magazine to these popular internet sites will more effectively promote our product sales. Young adults are spending more and more time on the internet downloading music, communicating and researching for homework and less and less time reading paper magazines and listening to the radio. As the trend for cultural icons to go digital, so must our marketing plans.

Television Advertising

It used to be common to advertise for our products on shows like Friends and Seinfeld for our target audience, but even the face of television is changing. Young adults are tuning into reality television shows for their entertainment. Results from the focus group show that our target audience is most interested in shows like American Idol,The Apprentice, and America's Next Top Model. The only non-reality television show to be ranked in the top ten most commonly watched shows by males and females 18-25 is Desperate Housewives. At Blue Incorporated, we need to focus our advertising budget on reality television shows and reduce the amount of advertising spent on other programs.

By refocusing our advertising efforts of our new line of clothing we will be able to maximize the exposure of our product to our target market and therefore increase our sales. Tapping into the trends of young adults will help us gain market share and sales through effective advertising.

Attachments: Focus Group Results, January- May 2007; Survey Findings, January - April 2007

This is a sample memo; facts and statistics used are fictional.

USES OF PREPOSITIONS

2009-12-20T19:02:00.001-08:00

Use of prepositions

Inseparable

Prepositions are used in three ways:

(1) Compounded with verbs, adverbs, or conjunctions; as, for example, with verbs, withdraw, understand, overlook, overtake, overflow, undergo, outstay, outnumber, overrun, overgrow, etc.; with adverbs, thereat, therein, therefrom, thereby, therewith, etc.; with conjunctions, whereat, wherein, whereon, wherethrough, whereupon, etc.

Separable

(2) Following a verb, and being really a part of the verb. This use needs to be watched closely, to see whether the preposition belongs to the verb or has a separate prepositional function. For example, in the sentences, (a) "He broke a pane from the window," (b) "He broke into the bank," in (a), the verb broke is a predicate, modified by the phrase introduced by from; in (b), the predicate is not broke, modified by into the bank, but broke into—the object, bank.
Study carefully the following prepositions with verbs:—
Considering the space they took up.—Swift.
I loved, laughed at, and pitied him.—Goldsmith.
The sun breaks through the darkest clouds.—Shakespeare.
They will root up the whole ground.—Swift.
A friend prevailed upon one of the interpreters.—Addison
My uncle approved of it.—Franklin.
The robber who broke into them.—Landor.
This period is not obscurely hinted at.—Lamb.
The judge winked at the iniquity of the decision.—Id.
The pupils' voices, conning over their lessons.—Irving.
To help out his maintenance.—Id.
With such pomp is Merry Christmas ushered in.—Longfellow.

Ordinary use as connective, relation words

(3) As relation words, introducing phrases,—the most common use, in which the words have their own proper function.

Usefulness of prepositions

Prepositions are the subtlest and most useful words in the language for compressing a clear meaning into few words. Each preposition has its proper and general meaning, which, by frequent and exacting use, has expanded and divided into a variety of meanings more or less close to the original one.
Take, for example, the word over. It expresses place, with motion, as, "The bird flew over the house;" or rest, as, "Silence broods over the earth." It may also convey the meaning of about, concerning; as, "They quarreled over the booty." Or it may express time: "Stay over night."
The language is made richer and more flexible by there being several meanings to each of many prepositions, as well as by some of them having the same meaning as others.

Simple Future Tense

2009-12-20T02:57:00.000-08:00

I will sing

The simple future tense is often called will, because we make the simple future tense with the modal auxiliary will.

How do we make the Simple Future Tense?

The structure of the simple future tense is:

subject	+	auxiliary verb WILL	+	main verb
		invariable		base
		will		V1

For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we insert not between the auxiliary verb and main verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences with the simple future tense:

	subject	auxiliary verb		main verb
+	I	will		open	the door.
+	You	will		finish	before me.
-	She	will	not	be	at school tomorrow.
-	We	will	not	leave	yet.
?	Will	you		arrive	on time?
?	Will	they		want	dinner?

When we use the simple future tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and auxiliary verb:

I will	I'll
you will	you'll
he will she will it will	he'll she'll it'll
we will	we'll
they will	they'll

For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we contract with won't, like this:

I will not	I won't
you will not	you won't
he will not she will not it will not	he won't she won't it won't
we will not	we won't
they will not	they won't

How do we use the Simple Future Tense?

No Plan

We use the simple future tense when there is no plan or decision to do something before we speak. We make the decision spontaneously at the time of speaking. Look at these examples:

Hold on. I'll get a pen.
We will see what we can do to help you.
Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight.

In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision is made at the time of speaking.
We often use the simple future tense with the verb to think before it:

I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow.
I think I will have a holiday next year.
I don't think I'll buy that car.

Prediction

We often use the simple future tense to make a prediction about the future. Again, there is no firm plan. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some examples:

It will rain tomorrow.
People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century.
Who do you think will get the job?

Be

When the main verb is be, we can use the simple future tense even if we have a firm plan or decision before speaking. Examples:

I'll be in London tomorrow.
I'm going shopping. I won't be very long.

Will you be at work tomorrow?

Subject, Verb, Complement & Modifier

2009-12-16T22:59:00.000-08:00

Subject

The subject is the agent of the sentence in the active voice, subject is the person or thing that does the action of the sentence and subject normally precedes the verb.

Note : Every sentece in English must have a Subject

Example : Coffee is delicious

Milk contains calcium

The subject may be a noun phrase. A noun phrase is a group of words ending with a noun. (it can't begin with a preposition).

Example : The book is on the table

That new red car is John's

In some sentence there is not true subject. However it and there can often act as pseudo-subjects and should be considered as subjects.

Example : It is a nice day today

There was a fire in that bilding last month

Verb

The verb follows the subject, it generally shows the action of the sentence.

Note : Every sentence must have a verb

Example : John drives too fast

They hate spinach

The verb maybe a verb phrase. A verb phrase consists of one or more auxiliaries and one main verb. The auxiliaries always precede the main verb.

Example : John is going to Miami tomorrow

(auxiliary is; main verb going)

Jane has been reading that book

(auxiliary has, been; main verb reading)

Complement

A complement completes the verb. It is similar to the subject because it's usually a noun or noun phrase, However, it generally follows the verb when the sentence in the active voice.

Note : Every sentence doesn't require a complement

The complement can't begin with a preposition

Example : He was smoking a cigarette

John bought a cake yesterday

Modifier

tells the time, place or manner of the action. Very often it's a prepositional phrase. Prepotional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun.

Note : A modifier of time usually comes last if more than one modifier is present.

Example of prepositional phrases :

In the morning, at university, on the table

A modifier can also be an adverb or an adverbial phrase :

Last night, hurriedly, next year, outdoors, yesterday

Example : John bought a book at the bookstore

(modifier place)

Jill was swimming in the pool yesterday

(modifier of place)(modifier of time)

Note :

The modifier normally follows the complement, but not always. However, the modifier, especially when it's a prepositional phrase, usually can't separate the verb and the complement.

Example : She drove the car on the street

(verb) (complement)

Exercise

Identify the subject, verb, complement, and modifier in each of the following sentence.

1. George is cooking dinner tonight

2. Henry and Marcia have visited the president

3. We eat lunch in this restaurant today

4. Pat should have bought gasoline yesterday

5. Trees grows

6. It was raining at seven o'clock this morning

7. She opened her book

8. Harry is washing dishes right now

9. She buy pineaple in the market

10. They were watching tv a few minutes ago

*Answer*

1. George/ is cooking/ dinner /tonight

(subject) (verb phrase) (complement) (modifier of time)

2. Henry and Marcia/ have visited/ the president

(subject) (verb phrase) (complement)

3. We /eat/ lunch /in this restaurant /today

(subject) (verb phrase) (complement) (modifier of place)(modifier of time)

4. Pat /should have bought /gasoline /yesterday

(subject) (verb phrase) (complement) (modifier of time)

5. Trees /grows

(subject) (verb phrase)

6. It/ was raining /at seven o'clock this morning

(subject) (verb phrase) (modifier of time)

7. She /opened /her book

(subject) (verb phrase) (complement)

8. Harry /is washing /dishes /right now

(subject) (verb phrase) (complement) (modifier of time)

9. She /buy /pineaple /in the market

(subject) (verb phrase) (complement) (modifier of place)

10. They /were watching /tv /a few minutes ago

(subject) (verb phrase) (complement) (modifier of time)

X.25 Protocol

2009-11-11T14:57:00.000-08:00

X.25 adalah protocol yang mendefinisikan bagaimana computer (device) pada jaringan public yang berbeda platform bisa saling berkomunikasi. Protocol yang sudah distandarisasi oleh International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T).

Gambar 1 mengilustrasikan sebuah network X.25
Gambar 1. Paket Switching dari Jaringan X.25
Sumber: http://www.sangoma.com/x25.htm

Device pada X.25 ini terbagi menjadi tiga kategori:

Data Terminal Equipment (DTE),Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE) serta•Packet Switching Exchange (PSE).
Device yang digolongkan DTE adalah end-system seperti terminal, PC, host jaringan (user device).
Sedang device DCE adalah device komunikasiseperti modem dan switch. Device inilah yang menyediakanbagikomunikasiantara DTE dan PSE. Adapun PSE ialah switch yang yangmenyusunsebagianbesar carrier network.

Hubungan antar ketiga kategori ini diilustrasikan pada gambar di bawah ini :

Gambar 2. Hubungan DTE-DCE dan PSE
Sumber: www.cisco.com

Penggunaan protokol pada model standar X.25 ini meliputi tiga layer terbawah dari model referensi OSI. Terdapat tiga protokol yang biasa digunakan pada implementasi X.25 yaitu:

• Packet-Layer Protocol (PLP),

• Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB)

• Serta beberapa standar elektronik dari interface layer fisik seperti EIA/TIA-232, EIA/TIA-449, EIA-530, dan G.703.

• Gambar dibwah ini mengilustrasikan protokol-protokol X.25 ini pada model OSI.

Perbandingan Protokol X.25 Pada Tiga Layer Terbawah OSI
Sumber: www.cisco.com

Lapisan-lapisan X25 :

Layer 1:

• Physical Layer bekerja dengan elektris atau sinyal. Didalamnya termasuk beberapa standar elektronik seperti is V.35 , RS232 and X.21.

Layer 2:

• Data Link Layer, pada X.25 diimplementasikan ISO HDLC standar yang disebut Link Access Procedure Balanced (LAPB) dan menyediakan link yang bebas error antara dua node yang secara fisik terkoneksi. Error ini akan dicek dan dikoreksi pada tiap hop pada network.

• Fasilitas inilah yang membuat X.25 handal, dan cocok untuk link yang noisy, cenderung punya banyak error.

• Protocol modern seperti Frame Relay atau ATM tidak punya error correction dan hanya memiliki basic flow control. Mereka merngandalkan protokol pada level yang lebih tinggi seperti TCP/IP untuk menyediakan flow control dan end-to-end error correction.

Layer 3:

• Network Layer yang mengatur komunikasi end-to-end antar device DTE. Layer ini mengurus set-up dan memutus koneksi serta fungsi routing dan juga multiplexing.

Virtual Circuit X.25

• Sebuah virtual circuit adalah koneksi logical yang dibuat untuk menjamin konektivitas antara dua network device. Sebuah virtual circuit menandai sebuah path logical dua arah dari sebuah DTE ke device lain dalam sebuah jaringan X.25.

• X.25 membuat beberapa user DTE pada jaringan X.25 untuk berkomunikasi dengan beberapa DTE lain secara simultan. Hal ini dimungkinkan karena X.25 mempunyai circuit logical tadi.

• Secara fisik, koneksi ini dapat melalui berapapun node seperti DCE dan PSE. Beberapa virtual circuit bisa disatukan (multiplexing) menjadi sebuah koneksi fisik tunggal. Kemudian koneksi ini bisa dipecah lagi di tempat tujuan, untuk kemudian menyampaikan data pada tujuan masing-masing. Gambar 4 dibawah menggambarkan bagaimana proses multiplexing dan demultiplexing ini.

Penggabungan beberapa virtual circuit menjadi satu circuit fisik

Sumber: www.cisco.com

• Sedangkan virtual circuit pada X.25 itu sendiri terbagi menjadi dua, yaitu switch dan permanen.

• Switched virtual circuits (SVC) adalah koneksi temporer yang digunakan untuk transfer data yang jarang dilakukan. SVC ini terjadi antar dua DTE yang tiap kali koneksi akan membuat koneksi, menjaga hingga mengakhiri sesi yang diperlukan. SVC ini bisa diibaratkan seperti sambungan telepon. Sebuah koneksi tersambung, data ditransfer lalu koneksi tersebut ditutup. Tiap DTE pada network mempunyai sebuah alamat DTE unik, penggunaan yang mirip dengan telepon.

• Dan permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) adalah koneksi permanen yang digunakan untuk transfer data yang kerap dilakukan (frekuensi koneksi sering) serta transfer data yang konsisten. Pada jenis ini tidak diperlukan pengadaan sebuah sesi,

• sehingga DTE bisa memulai mentransfer data kapanpun karena sesi PVC ini selalu ada (aktif).

• Untuk membuat suatu koneksi SVC, DTE asal mengirimkan sebuah paket Call Request Packet, yang mengandung alamat DTE tujuan.

• DTE tujuan memutuskan akan menerima paket atau tidak. Kemudian panggilan dari DTE asal diterima dengan mengirimkan paket Call Accepted atau dengan mengirimkan paket Clear Request apabila DTE tujuan memutuskan untuk tidak menerima koneksi tersebut.

• Setelah DTE asal menerima paket Call Accepted, virtual circuit akan terbentuk dan data lalu ditransfer. Ketika DTE ingin mengakhiri sesi, sebuah paket Clear Request dikirim pada DTE pasangannya, yang akan menjawab dengan mengirim sebuah paket Clear Confirmation. Gambar di bawah ini mengilustrasikan detail koneksi DTE-DCE seperti yang telah dijelaskan.

Langkah Konektivitas DTE-DCE

Sumber: http://www2.rad.com/networks/1996/x25/x25.htm

Tujuan tiap paket diidentifikasikan oleh Logical Channel Identifier (LCI) atau Logical Channel

Number (LCN) . LCN ini mengidentifikasikan nomor aktual dari channel logic pada link DTE-DCE.

LCN berukuran 8 bit dan direpresentasikan oleh nomor antar 0 hingga 255.

Frame Relay

2009-11-11T03:19:00.000-08:00

FRAME RELAY SERVICE

FRS merupakan data-only service. Service ini hanya diperuntukkan bursty data traffic, dan tidak menyediakan fasilitas untuk time-sensitive real-time traffic seperti video atau suara. Dua term penting yang perlu diketahui consumer adalah committed information rate (CIR), yaitu jaminan data rata-rata yang dikontrak, dan committed burst size (CBS, juga dinotasikan dengan Bc), jumlah bit maksimum yang dapat ditransfer selama interval waktu T. Relasi antara besaran-besaran tersebut

T = Bc / CIR

Sebagai contoh, CIR 128 kbps dan CBS 512 kilobits, T adalah 512 dibagi 128 yaitu 4 detik. Ini berarti jaringan dijamin untuk transfer data 512 kilobit pada selang waktu 4 detik . Ketika membeli FRS, diperlukan seleksi hati-hati pada harga CIR dan CBS yang menghasilkan harga T cukup besar untuk meng-cover kondisi burst terburuk. Bagaimanapun, faktor lain masuk kepada persamaan di atas, memperbolehkan transfer data melebihi CBS. Faktor tersebut ialah excess burst size (EBS, juga dinotasikan dengan Be). Jika terjadi congestion pada jaringan, consumer dijamin mendapatkan performansi sesuai dengan CIR dan CBS yang dipesan. Jika pada jaringan tidak terjadi congestion, consumer dapat melakukan transfer data hingga Bc + Be bytes per detik. Pada contoh di atas, dengan CBS 512 kbps dan EBS 256 kb, diperbolehkan transfer data 768 kb ketika jaringan tidak congested.

ARSITEKTUR FRAME RELAY

Inti dari FRS adalah packet yang dikirimkan, disebut juga frame. Masing-masing frame memiliki header fix dan payload yang besarnya variabel.

Penjelasan arsitektur frame dari kiri ke kanan :

· Flag. Mengindikasikan awal frame. Flag yang mempunyai form yang sama dengan flag ini yang terletak di akhir frame menunjukkan akhir dari frame.

· DLCI. Data Link Connection Identifier, 10 bit field (dipisah menjadi 6 dan 4 bit) mengidentifikasikan virtual circuit (VC) pada frame tersebut.

· C/R. Command/Response flag, digunakan untuk kendali aliran local transport.

· EA. Dua address extension yang terpisah yang digunakan untuk expansi DLCI di dalam jaringan carrier.

· Congestion Information Bits, sekumpulan flag diset oleh jaringan, ketika terjadi congestion pada jaringan ketika frame sedang dalam perjalanan.

· Payload. Sekumpulan data yang besarnya variabel (besar maksimum ditentukan oleh penyedia jaringan).

· Frame Check Sequence. Bit reduncant untuk mencek validasi frame, ketika sedang dalam perjalanan.

· Flag. Flag yang menandakan akhir dari frame.

Tidak seperti paket LAN, frame ini tidak mengandung alamta sumber atau tujuan. Ini karena sumber dan tujuan dispesifikasikan untuk koneksi saat waktu instalasi (untuk PVC) atau selama call setup (untuk SVC). Dalam kedua kasus, hasilnya adalah DLCI yang mengidentifikasikan VC yang diasosiasikan dengan koneksi. Frame Check Sequence dihitung ketika frame dibuat, dan diinjeksikan ke network interface. FCS ini di cek setiap hop di jaringan FRS, dan jika dideteksi kesalahan, Frame dibuang.

Kontrol Cengestion

Untuk memenuhi kebutuhan kecepatan data customer, digunakan field informasi congestion. Field informasi congestion dicatat selagi terjadi masalah congestion saat frame dalam perjalanan.

Field informasi congestion mengandung discard eligibility (DE) flad, yang diset pada frame yang akan dikorbankan ketika terjadi overload. Flag DE untuk paket diset ketika kecepatan data di dalam jaringan melebihi harga CIR subscriber. Frame tersebut merupakan bagian dari burst kecepatan tinggi, dan memiliki prioritas rendah dibandingkan frame-frame lainnya. Peralatan end user juga mengeset DE flag jika mengetahui bahwa frame tersebut bukan frame yang esensial (antara lain pesan pada manajemen jaringan).

Jaringan menjaga track dari masalah congestion dengan mengeset satu dari dua explicit congestion bits :forward explicit congestion notification (FECN) dan backward explicit congestion notification (BECN). Bit-bit ini memberitahukan kepada penerima dan pengirim pada ujung-ujung koneksi, masing-masing, untuk mempersempit kecepatan trafik frame. Karena explicit notification hanya berupa pemberitahuan (advisory), ini bisa diabaikan.

Interkoneksi LAN menggunakan Frame Relay Service

FRS memiliki banyak kegunaan untuk teknologi interkoneksi LAN. Pertama keuntungan tradisional dari packet switching pada FRS, koneksi fisik jaringan tunggal memotong pembiayaan hardware dan jalur, bandwidth on-demand mensupport pola traffic yang bursty, dan proses charges hanya terjadi saat proses transfer data.

Kedua, Frame informasi yang besarnya variabel dapat mengakomodasi berbagai jenis embedded paket LAN, seperti tampak pada gambar di bawah. Ini merupakan keuntungan dari FRS yang bisa digunakan sebagai bridges atau router.

Keuntungan lainnya, ialah FRS tidak sensitif terhadap jarak, sehingga cocok untuk koneksi metropolitan. Sepanjang semua node termasuk ke dalam satu cloud, tidak ada inter-exchange carriers dimasukkan ke dalam biaya jalur dan biayanya murni tergantung pada bandwidth.

Pertimbangan primer pemesanan FRS adalah payload maksimum dan harga CIR/CBS. Harus diyakinkan bahwa maksimum payload yang disupport dapat mengakomodasi paket terbesar pada jaringan LAN yang ingin dikoneksikan. CIR harus dipilih dengan harga yang sudah ditoleransi dengan suatu margin tertentu, setelah dilakukan pengukuran kecepatan traffic koneksi. Jadi, jika rata-rata aliran traffic 220 kbps, CIR bisa dipiih 256 kbps yang akan mencegah penolakan karena congestion traffic yang biasanya melebihi harga rata-rata ini. CBS bisa dipilih untuk harga konservatif, jika dilakukan pengukuran yang menghasilkan burst maksimum 900 kilobits pada dua hingga tiga detik interval, harga CBS bisa dipilih 1000 kilobits yang akan meyakinkan bahwa perubahan traffic tidak menimbulkan congestion pada traffic.

Servis transport lokal - channel yang menghubungkan interface jaringan dengan FRS switch - harus dipilih yang bisa memenuhi perpindahan carrier lokal (local exchange carrier). Link digital harus cukup kapasitasnya untuk menangani maksimum traffic.

Security Jaringan Wireless

2009-11-09T20:49:00.000-08:00

Jaringan Wireless

Teknologi wireless merupakan peralatan untuk berkomunikasi tanpa koneksi fisik. Pada teknologi wireless ini menggunakan transmisi frekwensi radio sebagai alat untuk mengirimkan datanya.
Jaringan wireless merupakan jaringan tanpa kabel yang menggunakan gelombang radio sebagai media transmisi data. Pengelompokkan jaringan wireless berdasarkan jaringannya ada 3 macam, yaitu : Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN), WLAN, dan Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN).

Keuntungannya

Keuntungan yang akan dirasakan oleh user dengan adanya wireless untuk koneksi internet, yaitu user dapat melakukan koneksi internet kapan saja dan dimana saja asalkan masih berada dalam ruang lingkup hot-spot, selain itu dalam segi biaya pembangunan, wireless jauh lebih murah bila dibandingkan dengan kabel.

Kelemahannya

Selain itu jaringan wireless juga memiliki lebih banyak kelemahan dibanding dengan jaringan kabel. Secara umum kelemahan jaringan wireless terdapat pada konfigurasi dan jenis enkripsi yang digunakan. Salah satu penyebab kelemahan pada konfigurasi dikarenakan saat ini untuk membangun sebuah jaringan wireless cukup mudah maka banyak vendor yang memudahkan pengguna atau admin jaringan sehingga sering ditemukan wireless yang masih menggunakan konfigurasi wireless default bawaan vendor. Contohnya sering ditemukan wireless yang dipasang pada jaringan setting defaultnya seperti SSID, IP Address , remote manajemen, DHCP enable, kanal frekuensi masih bawaan darri vendor.
WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) yang menjadi standart keamanan wireless sebelumnya, saat ini dapat dengan mudah dipecahkan dengan berbagai tools yang tersedia gratis di internet. WPA-PSK dan LEAP yang dianggap menjadi solusi menggantikan WEP, saat ini juga sudah dapat dipecahkan dengan metode dictionary attack secara offline.

Pengamanan pada jaringan wireless

Untuk menghindari jaringan wireless di hack maka diperlukan pengamanan pada jaringan wireless, diantaranya adalah :
1. Memakai Enkripsi.
Enkripsi merupakan ukuran security yang pertama, tetapi banyak wireless access points (WAP) tidak menggunakan enkripsi sebagai defaultnya. Kenyataannya WAP telah memiliki Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) protocol, tetapi secara default tidak diaktifkan. WEP memang mempunyai beberapa lubang di securitynya, dan seorang hacker yang berpengalaman pasti dapat membukanya, tetapi itu masih tetap lebih baik daripada tidak ada enkripsi sama sekali. Pastikan untuk men-set metode WEP authentication dengan “shared key” daripada “open system”. Untuk “open system”, dia tidak meng-encrypt data, tetapi hanya melakukan otentifikasi client. Ubah WEP key sesering mungkin, dan pakai 128-bit WEP dibandingkan dengan yang 40-bit.
2. Pakai Enkripsi yang Kuat.
Karena kelemahan kelemahan yang ada di WEP, maka dianjurkan untuk menggunakan juga Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA). Untuk memakai WPA, WAP harus men-supportnya. Sisi client juga harus dapat men-support WPA tsb.
3. Ganti Default Password Administrator.
Default password tersebut umumnya sudah diketahui oleh para hacker, yang nantinya dapat menggunakannya untuk merubah setting di WAP anda. Hal pertama yang harus dilakukan dalam konfigurasi WAP adalah mengganti password default tsb. Gunakan paling tidak 8 karakter, kombinasi antara huruf dan angka, dan tidak menggunakan kata kata yang ada dalam kamus.
4. Mematikan SSID Broadcasting.
Service Set Identifier (SSID) adalah nama dari wireless network kita. Secara default, SSID dari WAP akan di broadcast. Hal ini akan membuat user mudah untuk menemukan network tsb, karena SSID akan muncul dalam daftar available networks yang ada pada wireless client. Jika SSID dimatikan, user harus mengetahui lebih dahulu SSID-nya agak dapat terkoneksi dengan network tsb.
5. Matikan WAP Saat Tidak Dipakai.
Jika kita mempunyai user yang hanya terkoneksi pada saat saat tertentu saja, tidak ada alasan untuk menjalankan wireless network setiap saat dan menyediakan kesempatan bagi intruder untuk melaksanakan niat jahatnya. Kita dapat mematikan access point pada saat tidak dipakai.
6. Ubah default SSID.
untuk mencegah orang lain tahu nama dari network kita, tetapi jika masih memakai default SSID, tidak akan sulit untuk menerka SSID dari network kita.
7. Memakai MAC Filtering.
Kebanyakan WAP (bukan yang murah murah tentunya) akan memperbolehkan kita memakai filter media access control (MAC). Ini artinya kita dapat membuat “white list” dari computer computer yang boleh mengakses wireless network kita, berdasarkan dari MAC atau alamat fisik yang ada di network card masing masing pc. Koneksi dari MAC yang tidak ada dalam list akan ditolak. Metode ini tidak selamanya aman, karena masih mungkin bagi seorang hacker melakukan sniffing paket yang kita transmit via wireless network dan mendapatkan MAC address yang valid dari salah satu user, dan kemudian menggunakannya untuk melakukan spoof.
8. Mengisolasi Wireless Network dari LAN.
Untuk memproteksi internal network kabel dari ancaman yang datang dari wireless network, perlu kiranya dibuat wireless DMZ atau perimeter network yang mengisolasi dari LAN. Artinya adalah memasang firewall antara wireless network dan LAN. Dan untuk wireless client yang membutuhkan akses ke internal network, dia haruslah melakukan otentifikasi dahulu dengan RAS server atau menggunakan VPN. Hal ini menyediakan extra layer untuk proteksi.
9. Mengontrol Signal Wireless. 802.11b.
WAP memancarkan gelombang sampai dengan kira kira 300 feet. Tetapi jarak ini dapat ditambahkan dengan cara mengganti antenna dengan yang lebih bagus. Dengan memakai high gain antena, kita bisa mendapatkan jarak yang lebih jauh. Directional antenna akan memancarkan sinyal ke arah tertentu, dan pancarannya tidak melingkar seperti yang terjadi di antenna omnidirectional yang biasanya terdapat pada paket WAP setandard. Selain itu, dengan memilih antena yang sesuai, kita dapat mengontrol jarak sinyal dan arahnya untuk melindungi diri dari intruder.
10. Memancarkan Gelombang pada Frequensi yang Berbeda.
Salah satu cara untuk bersembunyi dari hacker yang biasanya memakai teknologi 802.11b/g yang lebih populer adalah dengan memakai 802.11a. Karena 802.11a bekerja pada frekwensi yang berbeda (yaitu di frekwensi 5 GHz), NIC yang di desain untuk bekerja pada teknologi yang populer tidak akan dapat menangkap sinyal tsb.

APLIKASI VIDEO CONFERENCE DENGAN KEMAMPUAN BEROPERASI PADA IPV4 DAN IPV6

2009-11-09T20:16:00.000-08:00

Komunikasi merupakan bagian yang tak dapat dipisahkan dalam kehidupan manusia. Karena berkembangnya teknologi telekomunikasi yang semakin pesat, tersedianya jaringan broadband yang mampu membawa data dalam jumlah besar, dikembangkan bentuk komunikasi yang baru, yaitu koneksi telepon melalui internet (Voice over IP atau VoIP) serta video conference, yang memungkinkan user komputer untuk melakukan pertemuan dari tempat yang berbeda. VoIP memungkinkan user komputer untuk seolah-olah menelepon user yang lain, sementara dengan video conference, user komputer dapat melihat wajah serta mendengarkan suara dari user yang lain, sehingga seolah-olah komunikasi berlangsung secara tatap muka.

VIDEO CONFERENCING
Menurut Gough (2006), videoconferencing dapat dibagi menjadi 3 jenis, yaitu :
1. Personal videoconferencing, melibatkan dua orang yang berinteraksi satu sama lain. Dalam personal videoconferencing, terdapat komunikasi berupa video dan audio antara dua orang yang berinteraksi. Dapat ditambahkan fitur tambahan berupa pengiriman teks, seperti yang terdapat pada kebanyakan perangkat lunak instant messaging (IM).
2. Business videoconferencing, memiliki fitur yang sama dengan personal videoconferencing ditambah dengan beberapa fitur seperti:
• Kemampuan untuk berkomunikasi tidak hanya antara dua orang, namun bisa lebih
• Fitur untuk berbagi file (file sharing)
• Kemampuan untuk melakukan presentasi
• Fasilitas whiteboard dan fitur-fitur lainnya
Business videoconferencing ini membutuhkan biaya yang lebih besar dibandingkan dengan personal videoconferencing, sebagai akibat dari fasilitas-fasilitas yang disediakan.
3. Web videoconferencing, yaitu video call yang terdapat pada sebuah halaman web. Web videoconferencing ini digunakan pada seminar yang menggunakan web, dimana pemirsa dapat melihat video yang dikirimkan
oleh pembicara seminar. Oleh karena itu, web videoconferencing merupakan komunikasi satu
arah, karena pemirsa tidak dapat mengirimkan videonya kepada si pengirim.

Dalam implementasi pengembangan video konferensi,dapat dikembangkan dengan strategi perintisan/percontohan. Model strategi perintisan dirancang untuk penggunaan yang terbatas, melalui penciptaan model-model yang terbatas. Model video conference dikembangkan dan disempurnakan dalam ruang terbatas.

Misal dalam lingkup fakultas.

Pada strategi penahapan, perencanaan secara umum disiapkan secara menyeluruh selangkah demi selangkah. Misalnya dikembangkan antar fakultas.

Dalam strategi serentak,implementasinya dilakukan secara serentak dan menyeluruh. Untuk sampai ketahap ini perlu hasil dari suatu kajian model yang telah digagas dalam tahap terbatas dan pentahapan.

Tujuan penyelenggaran video konferensi untuk perluasan akses terhadap pusat dan sumber belajar dalam proses pembelajaran. Dalam takaran konsep,teknologi video conferensi digunakan sebagai salah satu cara penyampaian dalam proses,pembelajaran berbasis elektronik. Sehingga video conferensi dalam konteks ini dirancang untuk tujuan instruksional. Teknologi video konferensi untuk tujuan pembelajaran sifatnya lebih khusus dan spesifik karena model ini berangkat dari kebutuhan pembelajaran yang mulai tahap perencanaan, perancangan, implementasi dan evaluasi berpatokan pada kebutuhan pembelajar sesuai tuntutan kurikulum institusi yang mengembangkan.

Fungsi video conference dalam pembelajaran

Fungsi video conference dalam proses pembelajaran dalam suatu institusi dapat dibedakan secara konseptual dan operasional.

Fungsi konseptual meliputi fungsi pengayaan,pengganti, pengajaran langsung dan penggerak (motivator).

Dalam fungsi pengayaan konferensi berbasis video dapat menyajikan bahan tambahan yang tidak dapat diberikan oleh pendidik, bahan tambahan ini bisa saja untuk memantapkan apa yang sebelumnya pernah diperoleh atau sekedar meningkatkan dan memperkaya perbendaharaan kasanah informasi yang relevan dengan tujuan pembelajaran.

Dalam fungsi pengganti Program konferensi berbasis video, dapat pula menyajikan hal-hal yang tidak dapat diperoleh oleh dari para pendidik, seperti misalnya menampilkan tokoh untuk meningkatkan tarik dan aksentuasi, penyajian peristiwa masa lalu,. Sedangkan video konferensi dalam fungsi pengajaran langsung biasanya dikemas untuk suatu tujuan khusus yang dinyatakan eksplisit.

Dalam fungsinya yang terakhir penyelenggaran video konferensi dalam pembelajaran untuk fungsi penggerak. Dalam konteks ini program video konferensi dapat menampilkan rangsangan untuk suatu tindakan positif dalam meningkatkan pengetahuan, keterampilan dan sikap. Misalnya siaran format video realtime tentang suatu tokoh dalam pembelajaran yang terkenal akan inovasinya.

Komponens Sistem Video konferensi

sebuah sistem harus dibangun oleh beberapa komponen yang saling bersinergi, berkolaborasi akan suatu tujuan, maka dalam penyelenggaran video konferensi persoalan pada insfrastruktur, sarana dan prasarana sudah tidak menjadi persoalan lagi. Dalam konteks ini persepsi dalam penyelenggaran video konferensi untuk memperluas akses terhadap pusat dan sumber belajar menjadi garapan sangat serius pada komponen

1. hardware

2. insfrastruktur jaringan ( fisik dan logik)

3. software

4. materi

5. strategi interaksi, dan

6. pemeran

Past Perfect Tense

2009-11-09T19:17:00.000-08:00

The past perfect expresses an activity that was activity or time in the past. If either before or after is used in the sentence, the past perfect is often not necessary because the time relationship is already clear.

.:S + had + V3 + O:.

The Past perfect is used to indicate

An action that happend before another action in the past,There usually are two actions in the sentence

=============================================
. John had gone to the store before he went home
. John told us yesterday, that he had visited england in 1970

S + had + V3 + before + S + V2
=============================================

=============================================
. John went home after he had gone to the store

S + V2 + after + S + had + V3
=============================================

=============================================
. Before John went home, he had gone to the store

Before + S + V2 + S + had + V3
=============================================

=============================================
.After John had gone to the store, he went home.

After + S + had + V3 + S + V2
=============================================

A state which continued for a tim in the past, but stopped before now.

. Abdul had live in new york for ten year before he moved to california

Past Perfect Progresive (continous) for category 2 of past perfect only, we can use the past perfect continous
=============================================
S + had + been + Ving + ...

. Abdul had been living in New York for ten years before he moved to california
=============================================

Excercise

The policemen read the suspect his right after he had arrested (arrest) him
After John had wash (wash) his clothes. he began to study.
George had waited (wait) for one hour before the bus come
Maria entered (enter) the university after she had graduated from the community college
Jeanette washed (wash) the pipettes after she had completed the experiment
Jane sent a letter to her university after she has received (receive) he scholarship check
After the stewardesses had served lunch to the passengers, they the sat (sit) down
The car had flipped (flip) the time before it landed on its roof
we corrected our papers after we had taken (take) the quit
John had lived (live) in miami for one year when his parents come to visit

Another and Other

2009-11-09T19:12:00.000-08:00

With count nouns :
an + other + singular noun (one more)

another pencil -> one more pencil

the + other + singular nouns (last of the set)

the other pencil -> the last pencil present

other + plural noun (more of the set)

other pencil -> some more pencil

the other + plural noun (the rest of the set)

the other pencil -> all remaining pencil

With non count nouns :
other + noun . count nouns (more of the set)

other water -> some more water

the other + noun . count nouns (all the rest)

the other water -> the remaining water

Exercises :

This pen isn't working, please gave me another (singular).
If you're still thirsty, i'll make the other pot of coffee.
This dictionary have a page missing. Please give me the other one (the last one).
He doesn't need those books. He needs the other (all the remaining).
There are thirty people in the room. Twenty are from Latin America and the other are from other countries.
Six people where in the store. Two were buying meat, the other was looking at magazines.
This glass of milks is sour. Another glass of milk is sour too.
The army was practicing its drills. One group was doing artillery practise, other was marching, another was at attention, and the other was practicing combat tactics.
There are seven student from Japan. Other are from Iran and the other are from other places.
We looked at four cars today. The first two were far too expensive, but the other ones were reasonably priced.

Note : Another and other are non specific while the other is specific. If the subset is understood, one can omit the noun and keep determiner and other. So that other functions as a pronoun. if it is a plural count noun that is omitted, other becomes others. The word other can never be plural if it is followed by a noun.

dEterm!nEr$

2009-11-09T18:35:00.000-08:00

FUNCTION AND CLASSES OF DETERMINERS

Function
Determiners are words placed in front of a noun to make it clear what the noun refers to. The word 'people' by itself is a general reference to some group of human beings. If someone says 'these people', we know which group they are talking about, and if they say 'a lot of people' we know how big the group is.

Classes of Determiners
There are several classes of determiners:

Definite and Indefinite articles
the, a, an
Demonstratives
this, that, these, those
Possessives
my, your, his, her, its, our, their
Quantifiers
a few, a little, much, many, a lot of, most, some, any, enough, etc.
Numbers
one, ten, thirty, etc.
Distributives
all, both, half, either, neither, each, every
Difference words
other, another
Question words
Which, what, whose
Defining words
which, whose

The following words are pre-determiners. They go before determiners, such as articles: such and what, half, rather, quite

- Exercise -

He doesn't have (much/many) money.
I would like (a few/little) salt on my vegetables.
She bught (that/those) cards last night.
There are (less/fewer) students in this room than in the next room.
There is (too much/too many) bad news on television tonight.
I do not want (these/this) water.
This is (too many/too much) information to learn.
A (few/little) people left early.
would you like (less/fewer) coffee than this?
This jacket costs (too much/too many).

s!mpLe present and present progressive

2009-11-09T17:53:00.000-08:00

The simple present says that something was true in the past, is true in the present, and will be true in the future. It is used for general statements of fact.

The simple present is used to express habitual or everyday activity, may indicate a situation that exists right now, at the moment of speaking.

The present progressive expresses an activity that is in progress at the moment of speaking. It begans in the recent past, is continuing at present, and will probably end at some point in the future. Often activity is of a general nature : something generally in progress this week, this month, this year.

Example :

(a) John is sleeping right now

(b) I'm taking five courses this semester

(c) John is tring to impeove his work habits

- Exercise -

Something smells (smell) very good.
We are eating (eat) dinner at seven o'clock tonight.
He practices (practice) the piano everyday.
They are driving (drive) to school tomorrow.
I believes (believe) you.
Maria has (have) a cold.
Jorge is swimming (swim) right now.
John hates (hate) smoke.
Jill always gets (get) up at 6.00 am.
Jerry is mowing (mow) the lawn now.

simple past and past proggressive

2009-11-09T17:21:00.000-08:00

The simple past indicates that an activity or situation began and ended at a particular time in the past.
If a sentence contains when and has the simple past in both clauses, the action in the "when clause" happen first.
Example :
(a) I walked to school yesterday
(b) He lived in Paris for ten years, but now he is living on Rome
(c) When I dropped my cup, the coffee spilled my lap
(d) I stood under a tree when it began to rain

- Exercise -

Gene was eating (eat) dinner when his friend called.
While Maria was cleaning the apartement, her husband was sleeping (sleep).
At three o'clock this morning, Eleanor was studying (study).
When Mark arrived, the Johnsons were having (have) dinner, but they stopped in order to talk to him.
John went (go) to France last year.
When the teacher entered (enter) the room, the students were talking.
While Joan was writing the report, Henry was looking (look) for more information.
We saw (see) this movie last night.
At one time, Mr.Roberts was own this building.
Jose was writing (write) a letter to his family when his pencil broke (break).

gh4-ch0c0l4te

Setting Jaringan di Fedora

Tugas Pengantar Kecerdasan Buatan 2

Tugas Pengantar Kecerdasan Buatan

Practice Test in class , at 18th February 2010

Pengantar Komputasi Modern

soo, too, either, neither, nor

Pronouns

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Demonstrative Pronouns

Possessive Pronouns

Interrogative Pronouns

Reflexive Pronouns

Intensive pronouns

Modal Auxiliaries

Modal Auxiliaries

Making a general business

How to Write the PerfectRefusal or Rejection Letter

Refusal Letter

Rejection Letter

How to write an acknowledgment letter:

Acknowledgment letters let others know that you value their time and opinion. They allow you to:

Gerund

Practise in describing company location

E-mail

Letter of Inquiry

material for business english 1 final exam

Daftar Otomatis Ke Seluruh Search Engine Google | SEO BLOGGER

Daftar Smiley Facebook

Memo

USES OF PREPOSITIONS

Simple Future Tense

How do we make the Simple Future Tense?

How do we use the Simple Future Tense?

No Plan

Prediction

Be

Subject, Verb, Complement & Modifier

X.25 Protocol

Frame Relay

Security Jaringan Wireless

APLIKASI VIDEO CONFERENCE DENGAN KEMAMPUAN BEROPERASI PADA IPV4 DAN IPV6

Past Perfect Tense

Another and Other

dEterm!nEr$

s!mpLe present and present progressive

simple past and past proggressive

How to Write the Perfect
Refusal or Rejection Letter